INTRODUCTION
The objective of this paper is to highlight various sources of retrieving indigenous African music and to prescribe the methodology and packaging of teaching and propagating the art to the Diaspora. A ‘combinative' methodology involving the historical, musicological and pedagogical approaches is employed to realize the set objective. Practical references and examples of performance practices are drawn mainly from the Yoruba of Africa.
The need for cross-cultural teaching and propagation of African History and Culture to the Diaspora and vice versa is a crucial one. On the one hand, Africans in the Diaspora should be well informed about their root: origin, historical developments and cultural heritage to avoid cultural ‘fracture' and ‘dislocation', and to ensure originality and the much needed ‘psychic' link with the source as long as time and changes continue. On the other hand, Africans at home need to have a feed-back of the neo-African culture as a product of unavoidable overseas' acculturative forces. In another way, the question that needs to be answered is ‘what has happened to the exported African culture? This understanding is necessary for theoretical and evaluative purposes and in order to put in place the intellectual and spiritual continuum within the global African community, which is been enlarged on a daily basis.
Perhaps it needs to be re-echoed that the greatness of Africa lies in its culture and not science or technology (Nketia, 2001). The African culture needs to be taught historically for purposeful understanding. Also, the place of music in African culture cannot be over emphasized. Music apart from serving as the highest artistic indicator, holds together other African performing arts such as dance, drama and folklores. Besides, music serves as a storehouse for, and vehicle to convey African history and culture.
The ‘retrieval' concept is based on the facts that the original indigenous African music is dying out as a result of the dearth of institutions that host them, and due to the overwhelming influence of Western education, foreign religions, science and technology. In the process, a bulk of the indigenous art-form is ‘lost'; some are ‘kept' in archives while few still exist. Since we can only teach and propagate what is available, the ‘retrieval' concept on which this paper is anchored is inevitable. There are numerous works already written on traditional African music. Relevant to this study are previous works by Mbiti (1968, 1969), Abimbola (1976, 1977), Adedeji (1991, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006a-c, 2007), Nketia (1974, 2001), Vidal (1980, 1981, 1989, 2008) etc. Those works discussed various aspects of traditional African music, including its source, significance, functional role, theory, practice etc. They all provided the theoretical foundations and indispensable insights needed for this work.
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN MUSIC
African music in its broadness is classified into traditional, popular, ‘pop', and ‘art' types. Each of them is so broad that there is no way the four categories could be covered in a study such as this. The traditional African music which is the focus of this study includes traditional ‘classical', traditional ‘religious', traditional ‘ceremonial', folk, neo-traditional and theatrical musical types, all of which are summed up as indigenous African music.
There are few problems associated with the nature and development of this brand of African music. Firstly is the heterogeneous nature of Africa itself. With more than 700 ethnic groups and several languages, one cannot codify the musical practices into a singular format. Nketia (1974) has always talked of ‘Unity in diversity' with respect to the nature of African music; a fact which confirms different musical practices bond with common elements. This pluralistic nature poses a serious problem to the study of African music generally.
Secondly, as mentioned earlier, indigenous African music is dying out. The traditional institutions (such as liturgies and festivals) that gave birth to the music are dying out as a result of Western education, foreign religious and Western civilization influences. Many children and youth that were supposed to serve in the shrines as priests (esses), workers and who should carry egungun masks are today either in the Universities pursuing degrees or converted to Christianity and even ordained as Pastors. In most cases, cohabitation or syncretism is considered as abominable. As a result of this trend, experienced practitioners are being reduced in number on a daily basis.
Another unavoidable factor that constitutes a special problem is change. No culture is excluded from change. Indigenous African music has also witnessed over the years, changes of diverse forms, and as conditioned by several factors and forces. We therefore need to dig deeper in order to get to the ‘original'. Finally is the issue of finance. Financing the promotion and development of arts and culture poses a great difficulty as not many sponsorship bodies or individuals consider it as important.
SOURCES
In order to retrieve the indigenous African musical practices that are dying out, we need to review various sources and examine their prospects. The sources include among others, oracles, traditional sacred literatures, folktales, traditional religion and festivals.
Oracles
While accepting the fact that traditional African religious practices are essentially preserved through oral tradition, oracles are now being committed to writing. A good example is Ifa oracle, which has been committed to writing several years ago and referred to as Ifa Literary Corpus. Oracular consultation or the act of divination was commonly practiced in many African societies in ancient times for divine guidance, remedies and healing purposes. The historical accounts of sampled cases involving the problem, the oracles of the god (ess) and the results were preserved orally and generally described as oracles. These oracles were found in ancient cultural practices of the African people; including their musical arts.
In a paper titled ‘the musical legacies in Africa Literary Corpus' (2000), I have been able to highlight various Yoruba traditional musical legacies inherent in Ifa Literary Corpus. The importance of Ifa Literary Corpus among the Yoruba cannot be over emphasized. While Orunmila is the Yoruba god of wisdom and divination, Ifa is his science and methodology in carrying out his divine operations. The Ifa Literary Corpus consists of divination activities of Orunmila (Adedeji, 1991, 2000). In validating Ifa Literary Corpus as a source of retrieving Yoruba traditional cultural practices, this excerpt might be necessary:
Ifa is the means through which Yoruba culture informs and regulates itself and preserves all that is considered good and memorable in that society. Ifa is Yoruba culture in its true dynamic and traditional sense. Ifa is a means whereby a non-literate society attempts to keep and disseminate its own philosophy and values despite the lapses and imperfections of human memory on which the system is based (Abimbola, 1977:14).
The wisdom and knowledge of Ifa are also revealed in the quotation below:
Ifa lo loni;
Ifa lo lola
Ifa lo lotunla pelu e
Orunmila lo nijo mereerin oosa daaye….
(Abimbola, 1977:10).
( Ifa has today
Ifa has tomorrow
Ifa has the next day with it
Orunmila has the four creative days....)
Some of the musical legacies preserved in Ifa literary corpus include, the role of singing in the ancient Yoruba culture, compositional techniques, musical forms, the art of dancing, instrumentation and some traditional Yoruba songs.
Traditional Religion(s)
Various African traditional religious practices have their respective musical expressions for worship, prayers and admonition (Mbiti, 1968, 1969). It is now generally agreed among scholars of African traditional religion(s) that it is both singularistic and pluralistic since it is a ‘diffused monotheism' and besides, most African societies believe in a Supreme Being worshipped through different numerous gods(esses). Yoruba pantheon for instance has about one thousand and seven hundred (1,700) gods(esses) ( Mbiti, 1969). Besides, there are spirits and ancestors. Various gods(esses) have their own music and preferred performance ethics.
To retrieve indigenous African music via this source, the sacred literatures (both oral and written), the liturgies of variants of the religion(s) their priests(esses) and the remote villages which host them should be consulted, ‘searched' and ‘researched'. An example of an African sacred literature or Holy Book is Iwe Odu Mimo ti Ijo Orunmila (Ijo Orunmila, n.d.).
Foreign Religions Practiced in Africa
The advent and development of Christianity and Islam on African soil have their blessings and curses. While they have got some negative impact on African traditional religion(s) and culture, there is no doubt that they have also incorporated many African religio-cultural practices (music included) in their modes of worship. We should consider these religions in our retrieval efforts. There is a kind of triangular interaction going on currently in African musical practices. It is between Christianity, Islam and African traditional religion(s), resulting into stylistic borrowing and adaptation. This dimension needs to be explored.
Folktales
Folktales are mythical stories and allegories formulated to teach ethics and morals in Africa . They were effectively used as a means of recreation in the evening time after a day's hard-work. Known as one of the ‘moon-light plays', folktales reserved a very rich anthology of traditional folk songs, which feature undiluted African musical elements such as melody, tonality, rhythm and form etc.
Daily Activities, Festivals and Ceremonies
Day-to-day activities among traditional African societies include among others, daily jobs like wine tapping, fishing, hunting and farming; political processes; recreation like wrestling and ayo games; passage rites and war. These and others make use of indigenous music known as folk music. Africans make music especially while working to encourage one another and to serve as intoxicant or stimulant. These ancient practices can still be found in remote villages. The text below is an example of a Yoruba folk song that promotes farming:
Ise Agbe, Ise ile wa
E ni ko sise, yo ma jale
Iwe kiko, laisi oko ati ada
Ko i pe o, ko i pe o.
(Farming is our traditional vocation
Refusal to work ends up in armed robbery
Education without cutlass and hoe
Is by far inadequate).
Another folk song text is:
A n ge 'gi laa la o e
Omo oloko n pose o e
B'a a ba gegi tan o
A oo fi' ya j ‘omo…
A oo fi ‘ya j' omo oloko, pepe.
(We were fetching wood in the farm
the child of the farmer was hissing
When we finish our work
We shall deal with the child…
We shall deal with the child of the farmer).
Traditional festivals like New Yam, Egungun, etc. are common all over Africa and music plays prominent role there (Vidal, 1989). Each festival has its own type of music and hence serves as a good source of retrieving indigenous African music. Some of the popular festival music among the Yoruba includes Abebe, Agemo, Gelede and Osun.
Social events and important stages of life are celebrated as ceremonies all over Africa . Such events include wedding, naming, burial, installation or coronation ceremonies. They are highly important to an average African and they are celebrated with a lot of merriment, fanfare and music. These ceremonies constitute another good source of retrieving indigenous African music.
Scholarship and Research
The greatest hope for the retrieval of indigenous African music lies with the academia. Ethnomusicologists or African musicologists who teach and research in African music definitely serve as rich custodians of the art, and their stored materials are invaluable to the retrieval project. Besides, several long essays, theses and dissertations on traditional music have been written and submitted to departments of music and other related departments and units in African and Overseas' Universities. Of a unique importance is the role of Institute of African Studies in Nigeria and International Center for African Music and Dance in Ghana . These two centres have the largest collections of theses and recordings of African music. Also, the contributions of the International Library of African Music in South Africa , Iwalewa Haus at Bayreuth , Germany and the International Council of Folk music demand mentioning in this respect.
In addition to the above, publications in form of books, journals and monographs written on African music, culture or related subjects are all rich sources. Of a specific note are the works of Anthony King (1961), Nketia (1974), Daramola and Jeje (1975), and Ladele, Oyebamiji, Aworinde, Oyedemi and Olatubosun (1986). Finally, the subject of African History as a discipline constitutes a special source that should be mentioned here. No African history would be complete without the music of the people. It therefore behooves researchers on indigenous African music to search African history for authentic documented materials.
Art, Popular and ‘Pop' Music
These musical genres although belong to the contemporary period, retain various traditional African musical elements in them and studying them would give insights to traditional compositional techniques and performance styles of indigenous African music.
While there may still be other sources, it is my belief that if we ‘comb' the above highlighted sources well; the retrieval of indigenous African music will be realized.
METHODS
Having examined the source, the next issue is ‘what methods do we employ in the teaching and propagation of indigenous African music to the Diaspora'? Popular methods used in pedagogy of music include Kodaly, Carl Orff, Suzuki, Bartok, Jacques-Dacroze, Martenot and the Ward methods (Omibiyi-Obidike, 2008). In addition to these and others, Vidal (2008) recommended the pragmatic approach for use in 21st Century Nigerian Music Education. While some of the methods identified above are useful, the methods and approaches needed for the teaching and propagation of indigenous African music are several. Firstly is a combinative method that is multidimensional and multidisciplinary; involving linguistic, historical, musicological and ethnomusicological approaches. While the linguistic would present the materials in their original languages and dialects, the historical would supply the periodical evolution, development and demarcation of the musical styles. The musicological and ethnomusicological serve as the core methods for teaching the raw musical elements. In addition, because of the peculiar nature of African music, teachers may have to be trained in multilinguistics for comparative and contrastive purposes and for wider scopes.
In order to bring out the desired result, the pragmatic theory put forward by Vidal (2008) should be employed as one of the methods. This approach which is similar to Creative Musicology pioneered by Euba (2006) prioritizes practicality in musical studies. Students are introduced to practical singing, drumming, dancing or playing musical instruments before moving on to the rudiments and theory. Vidal (2008) strongly advocated for this approach in the quotation below:
We need changes in our teaching methods, which place emphasis on theory memorization to the detriment of practice and mastery of practical skills. Theory without practice should have no place in our new music education system. In fact, some years ago, I asserted that the process of teaching music in our schools should be reversed in favour of the natural process by which a child learns and acquires languages. The process is listening, speaking, reading with the writing coming last. If one draws the same analogy with music, one finds that the process is listening, performing, reading and writing (theory) with the result that we never arrive at the practice, and theory becomes a mere memory exercise. (Vidal, 2008: 12)
Any of the methods already mentioned which favour practicality and easy understanding for students should be incorporated under pragmatic method. A good example is Bartok, who collected folk songs of his country and used them to teach music. Such a method makes music more real, easily understood and exciting.
Contextualization and Recontextualization constitute other phenomena. In many fields of academic study advanced by the European Western world, contextualization has been adopted for proper application to African needs and situations. For instance, terms such as Contextual Theology, African Theology, Feminist Theology are contextualized dimensions in theological studies today. Music studies need to be deWesternised, africanized by a way of contextualization and should still be recontextualized to meet the needs and situations of the Diaspora. For instance, one of the contextualized forms of music is known as neo-traditional, that is, traditional music taken out of its original context(s) and readapted for concerts, competitions and international festival purposes.
Collection of data would make use of various methods such as bibliography, discography and participant-observation methods. Also, various musical traditions yet to be documented need to be documented through relevant lexicography and notation methods. Musical traditions that are written, scored and recorded on electronic media last forever.
Teachers and resource persons should be ‘insiders' of the traditional music traditions. This is because as I argued recently (2006d), there is no way non-Africans can get to the level of the ‘owners' of the music in terms of comprehension and possessiveness. This position is based on the premise that what is called the ‘real' African music exists in the blood of the African child. There are sacred musical practices that not just any African can perform. For instance, one must be a Sango devotee before one can be spiritually qualified to play or teach Sango music. Playing or teaching a traditional sacred music form by a non-devotee disrobes the music from its functionality and efficacy.
Another important dimension of relevance is the possibility of employing music itself as a method in teaching and propagating various aspects of African history and culture. Just as some aspects of African culture serve as sources of African music, music also serves as a good source for learning salient subjects which are significant to African cultural revival. For instance sub-themes such as African religion and morality, indigenous knowledge system of politics, economics, health and legal systems, language and communication and other issues are all embedded in indigenous African music. To exhume and teach them, music is an indispensable tool, and could be effectively utilized.
Finally, an indispensable approach in teaching and propagating African history and culture is to organize, in the spirit of FESTAC ‘77, international festivals of African Arts and culture both in Africa and the Diaspora. Such festivals serve as an unparalleled means of encouragement and inspiration to musicians, promoters and participating African nations at home and abroad. Besides, they also serve as practical teaching ‘classrooms'.
PACKAGING
Packaging in this context refers to the pedagogical contents of indigenous African music. We shall discuss the genres first. Traditional musical genres could be classified on different levels. Broadly speaking, musical organization and practice in Africa are either instrumental or vocal. Although indigenous African music is essentially textual, instrumental music is actively engaged. In such forms, the instruments serve as surrogate for the human voice as they are made to verbalize. Traditional musical genres are also categorized as sacred and secular. Sacred forms include various music used for the worship of gods(esses), while the secular include different types of music used in social functions. In this study, we shall consider the instrumental genres first (whether sacred or secular).
Instrumental ensembles among the Yoruba for instance include Agere, Igbin, Bata, Aran or Ipese, Gbedu, etc. Agere drum ensemble which is meant for Ogun, the Yoruba god of Iron and Technology, comprises three drums – Agere, Feere and Afere. Igbin, the ensemble for the worship of Orisa nla, the Yoruba arch divinity, has four members – Iya nla, Iya gan, Keke and Afere. Bata is Sango's drum ensemble. It consists of Iya ilu, Omele abo, Omele ako and Kudi. Aran or Ipese is the Orunmila's ensemble used for Ifa worship. It has Ipese, Afere, Aran and Agogo as members. Gbedu, aYoruba court ensemble, is used to announce the death of a King. It is also used by the Ogboni cult. It has three members – Afere, Apere and Obadan. Dundun is a multi purpose drum ensemble but more popular with social and entertainment music. It has Iya ilu, Kerikeri or Aguda, Gangan, Isaaju (omele abo), Atele/Kannango (omele ako) and Gudugudu. It is also common to find the addition of Sekere (Gourd rattles) and agogo (gongs). Another ensemble is Sekere. It is a social instrumental ensemble and comprises of Sekere, Koso, Bembe and Aro. Apiiri, also a social drum ensemble consists of Iya aje and two Omele aje. Apinti is another social drum ensemble with Iya ilu, Omele and Agogo as members. Batakoto is a smaller form of Bata ensemble and it consists of Iya ilu, Omele ako and Omele abo.
Vocal musical genres are numerous in the traditional African setting. Firstly, there are four verbal modes of musical expressions. They are speech, poetry, chanting and singing modes. Chants constitute a large spectrum of vocal forms. Among the Yoruba, there are four principal chants which are Iwi, Iyere Ifa, Ijala and Rara. Others which are local types based on sub-ethnic regions include Ifa ibule, Oferere, Iremoje, Ekun Iyawo, Alamo, olele and so on.
Rudiments and Theory
Elements of music that constitute rudiments and theory include among others, tonality, melody, harmony, rhythm, form and compositional techniques.
Tonality
Tonality refers to scale systems as related to the psychological effect of the music. There are two broad types of scale systems – scales and modes. African scales are diverse and differ in nature and arrangement to the Western models. They include ditonic, tritonic, tetratonic, pentatonic, pentatonic, hexatonic and heptatonic. These scale types also have variants such as hemitonic and anhemitonic as asserted by Nketia (1974). Modes are special rearrangements of scales in a way that make other notes of the scales the tonic. For instance, pentatonic modes can be arranged as follows:
Pentatonic scale: C D E G A C
d r m s l d
Mode 1 D E G A C D
r m s l d r
Mode 2 E G A C D E
m s l d r m
Mode 3 G A C D E G
s l d r m s
Mode 4 A C D E G A
l d r m s l
For more explanation on African scales and modes, see Adedeji (2006a).
Melody
Melodies in indigenous African music are characterized by certain theoretical features. Generally speaking, most African melodies:
• are short;
• are repetitive;
• are non-modulatory;
• tend to move downwards after a start;
• hover around a tonal centre;
• are text-bound; for the purpose of preserving the tonal inflection of African languages;
• feature complicated rhythms in some instances;
• use both disjunct and conjunct motions;
• employ intervals which include 3rds, 4ths, 6ths, 5ths and 2nds;
• are more logogenic and pathogenic in source;
• reflect pendular contour more than others, a feature which results from the language tonal inflection;
• feature quaternary structure more than others;
• employ 6/8 / 4/4 used in alternation and frequently than other time signatures;
• make use of indefinite pitches some times;
• are largely improvisatory; and
• employ elements of surprise or my sterioso borne out of mysterious environment and diverse mysterious experiences. (Adedeji, 2006b).
Any authentic indigenous African melody will contain most of the features above.
Harmony
Harmony in African music differs from that of the West in type and organization. Let us look at some of the major characteristics (Adedeji, 2006c):
• African harmony is highly diversified. There are several harmonic types and structures, varying from one tradition to the other.
• African harmonic concept is both concordant and discordant.
• African harmony is to an extent, improvisatory.
• The hallmark of African harmony is in the rhythmic complexity as observed in contrapuntal polyphonies.
• African harmony enhances the textual contents in any given composition.
• The spiritual oneness or unity of performers is necessary for true harmony. It means that where there is no unity, true harmony may be difficult to obtain.
• Instrumental harmony is difficult to perceive for an untrained ear or foreigner, because most of the harmony and contrapuntal movements take place in the inner voice parts
• The vocal harmony is closely tied with the style of singing in a typical society.
Some of the instrumental and vocal harmonic types include, polarity, occasional heterophony, homophonic parallelism, homophonic polyphony, cadential polyphony, contrapuntal polyphony, hocket polyphony, ostinato polyphony, overlapping polyphony, improvised homophony and high density polyphony.
Rhythm
The chief characteristic of African music is the rhythm. It is generally believed that it is the greatest strength of African music in terms of musical quality. The structure and organization are both divergent and complex. Some of the types and stuctures are:
hemiola, cross rhythm, additive, strict and free vocal, multilinear, hocket, interlocking, polyrhythm, polymetric, asymmetric, melo-rhythm, hot rhythm, percussive rhythm, bell rhythm, standard rhythm, improvised rhythms, cyclic rhythm, rhythmic modes, implicit and explicit rhythms. (Adedeji, 2004).
Form
Another element of African music theory is the form; both musical and structural. Various musical forms in African music include: solo, chorus, call and response, antiphonal responsorial, strophic, canonic arrangements, strophic-responsorial and through-composed forms. Structural forms may be unary, binary, ternary, quaternary, quinary, hexanary, septenary, octenary and additive structures (Adedeji, 2004). All these form are inherent in indigenous African music.
Compositional Techniques
Compositional techniques refer to ways and manners by which traditional composers put sounds together to make a complex whole. Some of the popular techniques include repetition, improvisation, variation, imitation, ostinato etc. There are other techniques or compositional sources which are spiritual or metaphysical (Adedeji, 2007).
Aesthetics
Aesthetics in African music is rooted in the philosophical beliefs of Africans. Music in traditional African life is highly functional. There is no music for music sake, but music for life sake, whether as a terminal or concurrent activity. The music is tied to something; whether worship therapy, entertainment or ritual. As a result, the music must follow the ethics or dictates of the function. Besides, African music is text-bound. The most important element is the text. For instance, an African wants to know what the music is saying. The music has to say something; whether vocal or instrumental.
Lastly African music has both physical and metaphysical dimensions in its preparation and packaging. African cosmology is dualistic. There is the physical world and there is the spiritual; and both of them must interact in order to maintain an ontological balance. The spirits and the gods(esses) make their own music and teach their devotees. All of the above dictate the beauty of African music. In summary, the music has to please the gods(esses), the spirits and the ancestors. Once the spiritual world is happy, the people are happy; and once they are satisfied the people are also satisfied. The music has to suit the function and must communicate something. Let us take a look at two Ifa songs:
Ifa o gb'eyele
Ifa o gb'adie
Atari alaseju
N'Ifa n wa
(Ifa is not interested in pigeon
Ifa is not interested in a fowl
Only the head of the conceited
Is what Ifa demands)
E ma s'ika laye
Nitori a n ‘rorun
B'aa ba de 'bode
A o ro'jo
(Do not engage in evil practices
Because we are going to heaven
When we get to the heavenly gate
We shall give accounts).
History
One aspect of African music scholarship that is yet to be well developed is its history which cannot be patterned along Western classifications. There are some theoretical indications. There will be histories (and not history) bonded by common factors occurring to different societies at different periods of time. Using existing popular classifications, we will have the pre-colonial, the colonial and the post colonial. The pre-colonial featured the primitive era and period of intra-African cultural influences. The colonial era had the indigenous, the foreign and the hybrid musical products; all contending together, while the post colonial starting from the independence of each nation would be divided according to factors such as socio-economic, religious and political factors. For instance, any nation that has witnessed war will have a pre-war, war time and post-war as periods that would be marked with changes. This historical dimension which also requires more studies, is a sine qua non in indigenous African music education.
Core Areas
In teaching and propagating African music to the Diaspora, core areas to be stressed would include performance, composition, musicology, music technology and music education. The objective, theories, methodologies and contents and share some ideas from Western expressions, but are never same. These core areas must be based on the musical philosophy and aesthetics of Africa .
CONCLUSION
Attempt has been made in this paper to take a cursory look at what teaching and propagating indigenous music to the Diaspora involve; in terms of the retrieval, theory, method and packaging. The findings have left us with some challenges. Firstly, anything ‘African' is so vast that it cannot be adequately treated by an individual in a single paper such as this. If a ‘case study' approach is accepted, as I have shared from Yoruba the experience, then other variants of the same musical culture can be similarly explored. We can then put all of them together.
Secondly, efforts would be made by CBAAC to retrieve and document as indicated in this paper, as many indigenous African music as possible, before they vanish into oblivion.
Finally, while efforts have been made in this paper to identify effective methods, other methods and approaches that would be beneficial to the objectives of teaching and propagating indigenous African music to the Diaspora should be identified and added to the list. It is my belief that while a substantial amount has been lost, not all is lost and that we can still retrieve the ‘original' that is lost.
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