The African Slave Trade
The enormity and all encompassing nature of the slavery of Africans is best captured in the words of Elikia M'bokolo . He says:
The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian ocean ports and across the Atlantic . At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth). Then more than four centuries (from the end of the fifteenth to the nineteenth) of a regular slave trade to build the Americas and the prosperity of the Christian states of Europe . The figures even where hotly disputed, make your head spin. Four million slaves exported via the Read Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Oceans. 1
Slavery is as old as humanity. Slavery in ancient cultures was known to occur in civilizations as old as Sumer and it was found in every civilization including Ancient Egypt, the Akkadian Empire, Ancient Greece, Ancient Persia, Rome , parts of Roman administered areas and the Islamic Empire. Such institutions were a mixture of debt-slavery punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, and the birth of slave children to slaves. 2
In the African societies, before the Atlantic slave trade, there existed a kind of slavery. People by whatever circumstances were made to serve others, these people had very little personal freedom, at least for a while. To many, the right word to describe the people under this system is "indentured servants". Wars, debt repayment or certain offences account for this type of slavery. It is to be noted that under this system a slave could become a royal. Similarly, female slaves could become wives to royals and likewise their descendants were royals. 3 This system differed from the chattel slavery introduced by the foreigners and invaders. To the foreigners, once one was a slave, he or she would always be a slave. A slave to them was the absolute property of his or her master. He could never own a property. He could never earn his or her freedom and or beget free descendants. He was a tool to be used and discarded. The slavery of Africans was carried out with such cruelty and depth that by the passage of time people forgot that the word slave originated from European Slavs who were once enslaved. The black Africans now become synonymous with slave and slavery.
The Discourse On Arab- Led Slavery.
The studies and discussions on the Arab-led slave trade of Africans throw up many challenges and difficulties. There is the problem of definition and use of terminologies. The paucity of works and researchers, the position of Islam on slavery. The seemingly apathy of Muslims in discussing the issue. The strident criticism of scholars from the West. The impact of the Middle East crises particularly the Arab Israeli imbroglio.The slave trade which passed overland routes across the Maghreb and Mashreq deserts (Trans-Saharan route), and Sea routes to the East of Africa through the Red Sea and Indian Ocean has been given various names. The use of Arab-led slavery or Arab enslavement of Africans, without prejudice would be in order. 4 The argument for the use of Ottoman slave trade would have its own difficulties. The Ottoman Caliphate (led by the Turks, was only a phase, in the Islamic caliphate although the period might have witnessed a large traffic of slaves). The Ottoman Empire was an offshoot of an Empire started by the Arabs. At any rate, the Arabs had long been active and prominent in the slave trade of Africans. The use of the term Islamic slave trade or Muslim slave trade of Africans is sometimes mischievous and gives a religious colouring. The paucity of works and research in this field could be traced to a number of factors. One of these factors is proficiency in Arabic language. A researcher in this field would need the knowledge of the Arabic language. Even at that, the issue of slavery and the position of slaves did not attract rigorous study by early Arab and Medieval writers. Islam however gives a general rule of how Muslims should deal with slaves. This will be discussed shortly.
The discussion on Arab- led slave trade and research in this field has suffered from the Middle East politics and Arab-Israeli crises. John J. Miller, who wrote "The Unknown Slavery" in the Muslim world, that is and it is not over, in the National Review quoted substantially from Bernard Lewis. Miller says,
The phenomenon of Muslim slavery is not often studied and especially not the Muslim enslavement of black Africans a list of serious scholarly monographs on (Islamic) slavery in law, in doctrine or in practice could be printed on a single page" write Princeton's Bernard Lewis in his pioneering but brief book Race and Slavery in the Middle East (1990). He went on to suggest that the subject is so "highly sensitive" that it would be "professionally hazardous for young scholars to take it up indeed, among the thousands of professors and graduate students affiliated with Middle Eastern studies programs in the U.S., only a handful have dared to broach the controversial topic and a comprehensive history and analysis of it remains to be written. 5
Bernard Lewis, who undoubtedly is a great scholar, on Middle East and Islam has been tainted with the brush of partisanship. It was therefore difficult for him to travel to Arab countries. He had to re-focus his research on the Ottomans because of accessibility to Turkey. 6 it must be recollected that Bernard Lewis was born to middle class Jewish parents in Stoke Newington, London . He later acquired American citizenship. He propagated the concept of "clash of civilization" which in essence is an exposition on the conflict between Islamic and Western civilizations and the threat Islam poses to Western civilization. The scholarship of Bernard Lewis has been criticized by Edward Said, Noam Chomsky and Israel Charney.
Suffice it to say that the views of Bernard Lewis have been mired in the murky waters of Arab-Israeli conflict. Partisan scholarship, like this, would account for the reason why many professors and graduate students affiliated with Middle Eastern programes would avoid issues such as Arab-led slavery or "Muslim slavery".
Another example of the interference of Arab-Israeli conflict on Arab studies and by extension Arabic Language is a recent article in the Washington post on the teaching of Arabic Language in the United States . The article titled "Teaching Arabic and Propaganda was written by Joel B Pollak on Saturday July, 5 2008. He says interalia.
To study Arabic in America today is to be inducted into a world of longing, abandonment and regret. And that, before you even touch the political issues. Most maps of the Middle East in "Al-kitaab" do not include Israel though a substantial minority of Israelis, both Jews and Arabs, are native Arabic speakers. Alongside simple Arabic poems, students read about anti-western heroes such as Gamal Abdel Nasseer ... The U.S. government has funded studies on anti-Semitism in Palestinian textbooks. Farfax country officials have asked the state department to investigate the teaching materials at a Saudi-funded school. "Al-kitaab" is published by Georgtown University Press, with some assistance from the National Endowment for the Humanities perhaps we should also be looking into the content of the federally funded materials used in Arabic programs at our universities. Learning Arabic should not include lessons in political propaganda. 7
Expectedly the article generated reactions from cultivators, propagators of Arabic Language and the general American populace. One sour point noted by critics was the fact that the Washington post only gave a byline that the writer of the article was a student at Harvard Law School and conveniently forgot to add that he was also the President of Jewish students' Association at the University. The critics debunked the many claims of the writer and regarded the article as a preliminary attempt to truncate the increasing spread of Arabic language studies in American Universities. It is noteworthy, as stated by the Pollack himself that the number of Americans studying Arabic has more than doubled. "Nearly 24,000 U.S. students enrolled in Arabic classes in the fall of 2006, the Modern Language Association reported in November. In 2002, 264 colleges offered Arabic, as of the 2006-07 academic year 466 did." 8
In this type of acrimonious environment scholars and researchers would be careful on which topic to undertake.
The strident criticism of Western scholars on the issue of Arab-led slavery of Africans has not been altruistic. The picture that emerges from their criticism is, "if we are being castigated on the issue of enslaving Africans, then we are not the only ones, the Arabs also did it".
The baldlocks website posted on June 20, 2008 a documentary on the Trans-Sahara slave trade, which in turn stems from John Alembillah Azumah's book, the legacy of Arab-Islam in Africa : A Quest for inter-religious dialogue. The expectation was that this documentary would expose and condemn the evil of slavery. However, the website gives an introduction which exposes the intention of the posters. It says:
I wish that I would have found the following a couple of months ago. However, there is no time like the present. Here is a little something for those who would urge God to damn America for real and perceived sins against her citizens who are of black African descent. 9
To all intent and purposes, the documentary was to lessen America 's sins. Why? The Arab Muslims also did it.
John Miller could not also extricate himself from the web of assuaging America 's guilt on the issue of the slavery of Africans. He says:
This stands in stark contrast to the huge amount of scholarship on slavery in the West. Judging by the sheer volume of material, one might come away with mistaken impression that nowhere was the vile institution of slavery more entrenched than among the Americans hypocrites who declared that all men are created equal. 10
He however, was charitable enough to admit guilt of both parties in his conclusion. He says:
In considering the history of slavery in Islam and in the West, it is a mistake to decide that one branch of the same evil represents the greater sin. Instead, it is probably enough to say the human toll on both places was horrible, call it "immoral equivalence". 11
The fact of the matter is that all those who partook in the slavery of the Africans are culpable and blameworthy. They all must bear that guilt.
Africans themselves should use dialogue to discuss the African slave trade.
As we can see the issue of Arab – led enslavement has enteredt he domain of international politics, particularly the Arab-Israeli conflict. Therefore it behoves the Africans themselves to be the ones to discuss this issue and bring it to the front – burner. They should also be careful to eschew, partisanship, sentiments and prejudice. The best approach, I propose, is through dialogue and round table conference.
The Africans themselves should present a united front and make use of their first eleven. It is in this respect that I call for caution on the comments by one of the organizers of the conference on Arab – led Slavery of Africans, held in Johannesburg in February 2003, Kwesi Kwa Prah. He also edited the book Reflections on Arab – led slavery of Africans ,. He was not in agreement with Ali Mazrui on the need to postpone the conference to a more auspicious time as the timing of the conference coincides with the preparation of America to attack Iraq , an Arab country. Mazrui was of the view that holding the conference then may be mistaken for part of the Bush Administration's war propaganda. The remark of Kwesi Kwa Prah that " for those who are aware of your Arab antecedents, the fundamental weakness of your argument may, must unfortunately, prompt people to suggest that it is on account of your Arab background that you make this obviously flawed and inordinately anti African suggestion ….." 12 was quite unfortunate. Without holding brief for Ali Mazrui, he is capable of defending himself he only made a suggestion. He had earlier referred to the plan to hold the conference as "honourable". The organizers were at liberty to take the suggestion or reject it. In this case, it was rejected. They need not throw tantrums again.
In our march to seek restitution for Africa for years of slavery, we need a united front and the participation of all our scholars.
The redeeming aspects of the Arab-led slavery of Africans.
As unfortunate as the Arab-led slavery of Africans was, there were some redeeming aspects of the trade, particularly when compared to the situation of African slaves in other climes. The condition of the slaves in Arabia and parts of the Middle East was tolerable. This would be as a result of compliance with Islamic injunctions on treatment of slaves. Ardent critics also attest to this, John Miller says,
This is not to say Islamic slavery was worse than American slavery, in many ways, life was easier under Muslim owners than under Mississippi owners. 13
He also observes.
The characteristics of Muslim slavery have been far from uniform over the centuries, but it is possible to identify a few general traits. For starters, slaves were accorded more legal protections in the Islamic world than they received almost anywhere else. Slavery came under an intricate set of regulations that; for example, forbade the use of slaves as prostitutes, and prevented mothers and young children from being separated. The act of enslavement also wasn't supposed to occur on Muslim soil, though the slaves are customers didn't always pay close attention to this rule. 14
The freed African slaves were integrated into the Arab society. The children of the slave concubines of the rulers had access to aspire to the topmost echelon of the society. This resulted in rulers born of African mothers.
Black Africans as Rulers in Arabia
The involvement of African slave women in concubineage with Arab rulers resulted in a number of potential or actual heirs apparent of maternal African ancestry. Slaves of different ethnic origins acquired reputations of different qualities. The Zanj and the ‘ Sudan ' were traditionally regarded by the Arab as best hands for the more physically demanding tasks while their women were good wet nurses. Nubian women were highly esteemed as concubines.
After the first three Abbasid Caliphs, all the remaining thirty-four were born of slave mothers-mostly Berbers, Persians, Greeks and Turks. However, Ibrahim, son of a black concubine of the Caliph al-Mahdi (775-785) C.E. come very close to being caliph in 817-819 when a faction in Baghdad supported his candidature against the nominated successor of the caliph al-Ma'mum. In spite of being ‘excessively black and shiny', he was preferred, by some ‘Abbasid loyalists to the c Alid candidate of Persian descent for doctrinal as well as dynastic reasons. His failure to be confirmed as successor may partly have been due to his colour. It might also be that his reputation as a first class musician and singer worked against him since the pursuit of these arts was dearer to his heart than political power. 15
One of the most outstanding rulers of mediaeval Egypt was in fact a black eunuch, Kafur. He was probably of Nubian origin. 16 Ikhshidid governor of Egypt Muhammad b. Tughj bought him from an oil man for less than ten pounds. The governor was so impressed by him that he sponsored his rise to positions of political and military influence. He became the tutor to Muhammad 's two sons Abdul-Qasim Ungur (948-961) and AbulHassan c Ali (961-965). He was regent to each of them in turn. On the death of the second son, Kafur publicly declared himself ruler of Egypt . He got the caliphal approval as ‘master' (Ustadh) of Egypt and its dependencies. He died in 968 after 19 years of virtual (as regent for the Ikhshidid sons) and three of titular rule. In the latter part of Kafur's rule, Damascus and the whole of Syria as far as Allepo and Tarsus were incorporated under Egypt's rule. 17 He was able to keep the good works of Ikhshidid in trying to get the Egyptian into order in spite of very difficult economic conditions occasioned by a major earthquake, famine and a devastating fire in the city of Fustat, then a Cairo suburb and internal political difficulties. He ruled without extortionate taxes and he was able to stave off Fatimid invasion, which came only a year after his death. He was a great patron of learning and al-Mutanabbi, the great Arabic poet, was attached to his court for two years as official panegyrist before he fell out with the Ikhshidids.
In Egypt , during the period of the Fatimid Caliphate the longest reigning caliph, al-Mustansir (1036-1094) was, in fact, the son of a black slave woman. But because he came to power at the tender age of seven, his Sudanese mother along with the Jewish merchant who had originally sold her exercised effective power during the first fifteen years of his reign which greatly enhanced the power and prestige of the 50,000 black troops of the caliphal army. The first twenty years of his reign were years of great tranquility and prosperity for Egypt , marred only by the final secession of the Fatimid province of Tunisia . Then the Turkish troops, allied with Berber regiments, revolted and drove out the Black troops to Southern Egypt ushering in an era of instability aggravated by famine. The rule came to an end in 1074 at the hands of an Armenian slave governor of Akka in Syria , who was appointed commander-in-chief of the army and who brought his own troops with him. 18
Another great black ruler was Rashid the liberated slave of Idris ibn Abdullahi. He was a liberated slave and companion of Idris ‘Abdullahi founder of the Idrisid dynasty in the Maghrib. An c Alawite Sharif, Idris ibn Abdullahi had to flee Arabia following the persecution of Alids (followers of Ali) after the battle of Fakh near Makkah in 786. 19 He first went to Egypt with Rashid and later to Maghrib al-Aqsa to escape Abbasid's persecution. By February 789 Idris Ibn c Abdullahi had been recognized as the Imam of the Awraba Berbers. And by 791 when he died his domain extended throughout Northern Morocco to the south as far as the Bu Ragrag river. At the death of Idris, he did not leave a male heir; however a concubine of his was pregnant. Rashid was able to prevail upon the tribes to postpone the choosing of new Imam until after the woman delivered. A boy was born in August 791 and he was named Idris, after his father.
Rashid served as regent for eleven years. This was a time when the young Idris was under constant attack of the rival Aghlabids and the Abbasid caliphate of Harun al-Rashid in Baghdad . It was a proof of his political acumen and administrative savvy that he was able to exercise authority on behalf of the young Idris for so long over the irrepressible Berbers. It is even more noteworthy that he could prevail on them in the first instance to await the birth of the sovereign. Idris II consolidated the Idrisid state, which broke into nine small principalities after his death. The principalities were ruled by nine of his thirteen sons. 20 But for the dexterity of Rashid and his loyalty, the young Idrisid state would have been killed in his infancy. Idris II built on what Rashid had consolidated of his father's territories.
The seventeenth century c Alawite Sultan of Morocco Mulay Isma c il (1672-1727) was also the son of a Black concubine. He was ruthless and cruel. He was also a man of enormous energy who united his turbulent kingdom and ruled efficiently than most of his contemporaries. He relied on a large army of Black Slaves which numbered around a quarter of a million. 21 He assembled this large army by ordering the seizure of all Black Males in his Kingdom and also by purchasing some from their owners. He also got more slaves by sending expeditions to Southern Mauritania . These slaves were known as the “slaves of al-Bukhari” because they gave allegiance to Ismail on a copy of Bhukari's Hadith collection. These slaves were given black girls to marry, their sons thus providing the next generation of soldiers and their daughters domestic servants, concubines and wives. On the death of Ismail the black soldiers became the new kingmakers.
On the ascension of Mulay Muhammad III in 1757 Arab troops were recruited and the Black regiments dispersed, many of the soldiers becoming the personal slaves of the victorious troops. A small number was re-recruited at the end of the eighteenth century, while in the 1880s there existed a force of 5,000 Black Slave soldiers serving the Black ruler of a small independent kingdom at Ilerh in the Bilad Sidi Hisham in the far south of Morocco. 22
There were also black Africans among the reputable scholars and clerics. Many black Africans served in the homes of the Arabs as domestic servants and trusted aides.
The Dark Spots Of The Arab-Led Slavery
Apart from the ostensible forceful removal of African from their homes and the dreadful passage through the Sahara with its attendant misery and hardship. Many of the victims of slavery also faced hardship in Arabia and the Middle East . One of such sufferings is the process of castration and turning of the male slaves into Eunuchs to guard the harem of the Arabs. Another is the use of the African slaves on plantation labour such as the salt marshes in Iraq , which consequently triggered off a revolt. Another point is their forceful use as professional soldiers.
Black Africans as Professional Soldiers
Many rulers in North Africa and in the Middle East (especially Arabia ) maintained a bodyguard of Black Slaves. The first recorded use of Black troops according to Hunwick, is in Aghlabid Tunisia where they formed a special corps from the first days of the dynasty in the early ninth century to counterbalance the influence of Arab troops. 23 The corps was retained throughout the century because of their power though it was once disbanded and formed anew. The successor of the Aghlabids, the Fatimids, first put their predecessors' Black troops to the sword and they promptly formed a new corps. When the Fatimid capital was moved to Egypt in 972, their lieutenants in North African, the Zirids, continued to maintain Black troops who sometimes became involved in internal conflicts. The Zirid ruler Mu c izz bought some 30,000 Black slaves and they were engaged in bloody conflict with the Black soldiers of his heir presumptive, Tamim governor of Mahdiya. When Tamim eventually succeeded he slaughtered his father's Black troops and installed his own. After the middle of eleventh century the use of Black troops seemed to have died out. 24
In Morocco Black soldiers were first employed in Almoravid times when Yusuf b. Tashfin created a bodyguards of 2,000. The Almohads themselves had some Black troops among their forces, though they do not seem to have formed an important element. 25 The next known ruler to take active interest in the employment of black troops was the Sa c dian Al-Mansur who obtained his first recruits from slaves sent after the conquest of Timbuktu in 1591. The descendants of his Black militia later formed the nucleus of the great Black army raised by Mualy Isma c il earlier discussed. 26
In Egypt , Black soldiers were first employed under the Tulunids and in 870 a special quarter was built for them in the barrack-town established for foreign troops. Their successors, the Ikhshidids, continued this tradition and under the Fatimids large battalions of Black troops were raised to counterbalance the huge number of Berber and Turkish troops. There were numerous clashes between the three groups of militia and on several occasions the Berbers and Turks united against the Africans. In the greatest and final clash which took place in 1169, the 50,000 Black troops fought ferociously for two days in the space between the Caliph's and the vizier's palaces before being defeated and driven out to southern Egypt . No major force of Black slave troops was raised again in Egypt until the early nineteenth century when Muhammad ‘Ali sent his forces to the Sudan , largely for this purpose in 1820-1821. However, due to the high rate of mortality these troops did not fulfil a major role in the Egyptian armed forces, though in 1863 a sufficient number was still available to be sent to Mexico to support a French campaign. 27
It is to be noted that in India Black African slaves and freedmen played a considerable role, not merely as soldiers but also as administrators and rulers in a number of states and Sultanates such as Delhi, Benghal, Gujerat and Deccan from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. 28 The role played by Black African slaves in Indian warfare and politics in the period 1400-1700 was considerable. 29
African Slaves Castrated As Eunuchs
African slaves, victims from raids, were subjected to the monstrous unspeakable inhumane process of castration without anesthesia which had 60% mortality rate. 30 To stop the bleeding hot coals were cast into the naked wound. The most blood curdling alien screen a human could make followed this inhumane grisly process. The castrated men were drawn from Europe but also from Darfur, Abyssinia , Korodofan and other African nations. Eunuchs were generally made by Coptic Priests in Egypt and also by a group of Arabs known as Chamba. The reward for surviving the ungodly brutal act was a life of influence and luxury; silk garment, Arabian thoroughbreds, jewels were bestowed on them to reflect the wealth of there masters. The Eunuchs formed the most expensive enslaved group in Arabia societies. The were best known for serving as harem guards.
Black Africans In Slave Labour And Agricultural Works
In a limited number of instances, African slave labour was used in large-scale agricultural works, as it was also used, on a lesser scale, in mining and industry. The best-known instance of such “plantation slavery” is the use made of large numbers of East African slaves – Zanj - in draining the salt marshes at the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers around Basra and the preparation of the land for sugar cultivation. The appalling conditions of the slaves made them to revolt. The Zanj revolt started in 868 and spread like wild fire and gained remarkable victories. Many discontented Arab nomads joined them in the hope of winning enormous booty. Fortunately, for the insurgents the Black troops of the c Abbasid armies also defected to them, thus enriching their ranks with arm and well-trained manpower. Many free peasants in southern Iraq generously supplied the Zanj with food. The movement was led by a Persian c Ali b. Muhammad . He indoctrinated the slaves with the Kharijite doctrines based on absolute equality of all believers.
The Zanj went from victory to victory, knocking down imperial forces in many pitched battles. After a fierce onslaught on Basrah in 869, which virtually failed, the Zanj army built a new capital for themselves on a dry plain of the salt flats. The town was named al-Mukhtarah (The chosen place) they built another fortified town known as al-Mani c ah (The Impregnable). On the 19 th of June 890, they captured the flourishing seaport of Ubulla, their forces were strengthened with liberated slaves. In 871 they capture Basra with enormous slaughter. They occupied the western Persian province of Ahwaz where there were also sugar plantations employing slave labour and by 878 the major city of Wasit had been captured. In 879 the Zanj were fighting within twenty-seven kilometres of Baghdad . The Caliph brother, al-Muwafaqq in 880 was able to take serious steps against the Zanj after freeing himself from other pressing military pre-occupations. 31
However, it took him complete three years of very hard campaigning to crush the movement and seize the Abbasid towns. Many of the Black slave fighters were put to death, others took to flight and may have formed the estimated 30, 000 black slaves used for agricultural labour in Bahrein by the Carmathians in the tenth century. But they were not sent back to the dreaded marshes. Assessing the Zanj revolt, Oseni argued that the movement failed because the foundation was poor, there was lack of a concrete programme of activities; there was no basic positive concept other than a materialistic hope fuelled by the dream of Vengeance; the African slaves, though numerically most powerful, never produced the leadership from among themselves. c Ali b. Muhammad and his small coterie of Arab men who led the movement had no concrete programmes. The revolt, however, raised the question of how Muslims care for the slaves and the underprivileged in the society 32 The association of Islam with slavery necessitates the need to look at the position of Islam on slavery.
Attitude of Islam to Slavery
The male slave is referred to as c Abd plural c abid and sometimes c Ibad (Quran 24:32). However, the Quran uses c Ibad mostly for servants of Allah (believers) (Q: 3.20, 25:63 etc.). The female slave is referred to as amah( plural) Ima' (Quran 2:221, 24:32). Sometimes the Quran refers to slaves euphemistically by the phrase ( ma malakat yaminuka ) “ what your right hands possess ” Q.33:50). The Quran also uses the form raqabah for slaves. This literally means “ neck ” “ nape of the neck ” (Quran 90:13, 4:92).
Another term used for slave is asir ,( captive).
The abstract “slavery” is expressed by riqq or by a derivative of c Abd such as “Ubudiyyah”. The “master is sayyid ; he may also be referred to as mawla or in legal parlance “owner” (Malik). The opposite of slave free man or woman is hurr and hurrah. By the passage of time we have words for maid, manservant such as Jariyah, Khadim, wasif feminine wasifah . 33 The Quran acknowledges the existence of slavery. The Quranic injunctions were such as to mitigate the effects of slavery and to provide considerable encouragement for manumission. Kindness to slaves is enjoined in the following verse:
It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards the East or West but it is righteousness to believe in God and the last Day and the Angels and the book and the messengers. To spend of your substance out of love for Him for your kin, for orphans, for the needy for the wayfarer, for those who ask and for ransom of slaves. To be steadfast in prayer and practice regular charity. To fulfill the contracts which you have made. And to be firm and patient in pain (or suffering) and adversity and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the God fearing. (Q.2: 177)
In this verse kindness to slaves is enjoined along with goodness to parents, kinsmen and orphan. Elsewhere the Quran says:
Verily, We have created man in toil and struggle. Thinketh he that none hath power over him? He may say (boastfully) wealth have I squandered in abundance. Thinketh he that none beholdeth him. Have we not made for him a pair of eyes. And a tongue and a pair of lips? And show him the two highways? But he hath made no haste on the path that is steep. And what will explain to thee the path that is steep? (it is) freeing the bondman . Or giving of food in day or privation to the orphan with claims of relationship or to the indigent (down) in dust. (Q.90:4-16)
Owners of slaves are enjoined to enter into contracts of manumission (Mukatabah) with their slaves. Accordingly, a slave who feels capable of working to buy his freedom from his earnings may take the chance and his master has to grant his request. The Quran says in this respect
…And if any of your slaves asks for a deed in writing (to enable them to earn their freedom for a certain sum give them such a deed if ye know any good in them; yea give them something yourselves out of the means which God has given to you…(Q.24:33).
The freeing of slaves is one of the seven purposes to which the public alms ( sadaqah ) may be put:
Alms are for the poor, and the needy, and those employed to administer the funds, for those whose heart have been recently reconciled (to the truth): for those in bondage and in debt; in the cause of God; and for the wayfarer: (thus is it) ordained by God, and God is full of knowledge and wisdom.(Q.9:60).
Accidental homicide and the breaking of an oath may be atoned for by freeing a slave.
God will not call you to account for what is futile in your oaths but He will call you to account for your deliberate oaths: for expiation, feed ten indigent persons, on a scale of the average for the food of your families; or clothe them; or give a slave his freedom. If that is beyond your means fast for three days. That is the expiation for the oaths ye have sworn. But keep your oaths. Thus doth God make clear to you His signs, that ye may be grateful. Q.5:92.
Never should a believer kill a believer; but if it so happens by mistake (compensation is due). If one (so) kills a Believer it is ordained that he should free a believing slave (fa tahrir raqabatin mu'minatin) and pay compensation to the deceased's family, unless the remit freely. If the deceased belonged to a people at war with you and he was a Believer the freeing of a believing slave (is enough). If he belonged to a people with whom ye have a treaty of mutual alliance, compensation should be paid to his family, and a believing slave be freed for those who find this beyond their means, (is prescribed a fast for two months running) by way of repentance to God: for God hath all knowledge and all wisdom.(Q.4:92)
The dignity of the slave as a human being is respected in social relationships. The Quran forbids the prostitution of female slaves (Q24: 33). Nobody may lawfully enjoy them except their master (Q23: 6, 33:50, 70:30) or their husband, for legal marriage is open to slaves, male and female. Masters have the moral duty to marry off their “virtuous slaves of both sexes” (Q24: 32). It is permissible for Muslim slaves to marry free Muslims (Q2: 221, 4:25). The slave-woman who obtains her master's consent, which is essential, marries a free man, is entitled to a “reasonable dowry” from her husband 34. She is obliged to remain faithful to her husband; however, if she commits adultery she is liable to only one-half of the punishment reserved for the free married woman. (Q4:25).
The Quranic injunctions are further strengthened by the sayings and actions of the Holy Prophet. The Prophet urged the believers “Fear God in the matter of the weak categories; the slaves and women”. He was also reported to have said on his deathbed:
“Fear God in the matter of prayer and in the matter of those in your possession.” 35
The Prophet encourages emancipation of slaves. He says:
“Whoever emancipates a slave I shall intercede on his behalf to have him delivered from Hellfire”. 36
He also warns:
Fear God concerning your slaves. Feed them with what you eat and clothe them with what you wear and do not give them work beyond their capacity. Those whom you like, keep, and those whom you dislike, sell. Do not cause pain to God's creation. He caused you to own them, and had He so wished he could have made them own you. 37
The Prophets freed all the slaves of his wife Khadijah. He also bought more slaves and freed them, some of these freed slaves were Zayd b. Harith, Shaqran Salim Abu Kabshah , Mid c am, Yasar, Saudar, Mabur, Safinah, Umm Ayman and Umaymah 38 Abu Bakr, the first caliph freed Bilal from slavery 39 .
Hunwick believes that the good Islamic precepts to alleviate the condition of slaves were not generally applied and in reality other worldly factors tended to work to the slave's advantage, particularly, the domestic slaves where the Black Africans have the largest share. A man's personal honour would be tarnished if a slave ran away because of ill treatment, worse still if it were proved before a judge. A slave by societal norm is considered a valuable piece of personal property to be jealously kept. A man would readily give in to maintain domestic peace, if his slave repeatedly requested to be sold to another person for better treatment. It should rather be seen that these societal norms stemmed from Quranic legislation, which had become part of tacit agreement and cultural values of the people.
Under the law of Islam slave raiding is forbidden. The only juridical reason for enslaving a person was that he was an unbeliever and one who lives among a people with whom the Muslims had concluded no pact of non-aggression and whose territory had been forcibly overrun in accordance with the laws governing the Jihad. 40
The institution of slavery is, however, recognized and there is no distinction of colour. A slave is a slave whether he is a “white” Turk of central Asia or Slaves, from Europe or a ‘black' Abyssinian or East African Zanj. Slaves have both legal rights and disabilities, which varied somewhat among the four Sunni schools. 41
Islamic law recognizes only one category of slaves, regardless of their ethnic origin or the source of their condition. (Occasionally, there is the operative distinction between Muslim and non-Muslim slaves) 42. The two lawful means of slavery are birth in slavery or capture in war and even of these, the latter is not applicable to Muslims, since though they may remain enslaved they cannot be reduced to slavery. 43
In the eyes of Muslim jurists, slavery is an exceptional condition. “The basic principle is liberty”. (al-asl huwa al-hurriyah). Consequently, for the majority of them, the presumption is in favour of freedom. 44
Islam has given ordinances of good treatment of slaves and legislation on setting slaves free. The Prophet and his companions followed the injunctions and laid down good precedents. This process if followed would lead to the eradication of slavery. The religious scholars largely comply with these injunctions but the compliance of the political class would need a definitive study.
The call of Reparation from the Arabs
The sufferings of the Africans in Arabia and Middle East as castrated slaves, slave labourers on plantations, forceful recruitment into the Arabs Army for fighting wars, their forceful removal from their natural home to serve as domestic servants and concubines of wealthy Arabs necessitate the call for restitution.
With the Islamic conquest of North Africa and the conversion of North Africans to Islam, Africa South of Sahara became victims of the slave trade, since Islamic law forbids Muslims from enslaving fellow Muslims. When the Sudanese States embraced Islam, the non-Muslims became the next victims of the slave raids. The large scale plundering of whole towns and villages weighed heavily on the African societies south of the Sahara and partly account for their underdevelopment.
The miseries of the human cargo on the trips were immense. Unlike the merchandize, which has to be carried, they had to walk across the desert with little food and water. Even so, they carried some of their masters' goods, thus putting extra strain on them. As a result, most of them died, and even those who made it became emaciated to the point that in some instances their ribs could be counted!
The Reparation Drive
The need for reparations for Africans and peoples of African desert who were victims of slave trade and slavery has been variously made. The reparation drive was given a shot in the arm by the late Alhaji M.K.O. Abiola, notable businessman, politician, philanthropist and winner of the June 12, presidential election, whose bid for the presidency was annuled by the military. The effort of Abiola is summed up by Ade Ajayi thus:
Bashorun M.K.O. Abiola in his post NPN days, when he got tired of the politics of rigging elections, imbibed the philosophy of Pan-Africanism and confronted the issue of African development by embracing the concept of Reparation. He got the Concord Press to organize an international conference on Reparation in Lagos in 1990, and persuaded IBB(the then Head of State) to endorse it at an OAU summit in Abuja in 1991. Thereafter, the OAU Summit in Dakar in 1992 empanelled an OAU – Group of Eminent Persons [GEP], of which I am currently interim chairman, to pursue the issue of Reparation and put it on the UN Agenda. It is note worthy that it was from that Pan African perspective that MKO Abiola launched his bid for the Nigeria presidency in 1993. The basic idea of Reparation is that Africa does not owe the world, but over and above cancellation of the so called debt, the world that has exploited Africa for so long owes Africa the basic capital for development. Such capital will enable us to build roads railways, hospitals and necessary communication infrastructure to support development. 45
The reparation drive raises a lot of questions. Hakeem Harunah highlights some of these questions. Who, exactly, should receive the reparation: the present generation of Africans on the continent whose ancestors had sold out their brothers and sisters in the era of the Atlantic slave trade: or those in Africa Diaspora whose ancestors had been the victims who suffered the excruciating effects of enslavement? Who pays the reparation? How much should be paid, what method should be adopted for its calculation and in what currency? Who will be the collecting agent and distributor? How will it be shared? Is the reparation dream really realisable? Is the crusade really necessary? 46 The answers to these questions are unfolding as the reparation train trudges on. There also will be adjustments, re-adjustments and fine tuning.
The case of reparations for Diaspora Africans has been pointedly made. There are many court cases filled in New York , Washington D.C, Illinois , Texas , Louisiana and California by African Americans demanding reparations from corporations arising from "unjust enrichment from the immoral and inhumane institution of slavery". Significantly, some are demanding the establishment of "a humanitarian trust fund to be used to deal with the vestiges of slavery that 35 million Africans Americans still suffer from, like housing, education and economic development " 47 . The demand of this Diasporic Africans are in order, whichever way one looks at it Africans and people of Africans descent deserve reparations for the more than four centuries of exploitation of their human and natural resources which contributed substantially to the creation of Euro-American wealth and prosperity. The Africans call for reparation is not an aberration it has been done in the past for other nations and it is being presently done. That of Africa must not be an exemption.
Reparation for other nations
Britain , Holland, Denmark, all European nations, who owned slaves in the Caribbean were compensated for their loss of slave labour when the system was abolished. 48 After the First world war, the allied powers were unanimous in pressuring Germany to accept responsibility for the loss and damage caused to the Allied and Associated powers. The Treaty of Versailles in particular included a reparation clause. 49 After the second world war Germany , recognizing the evil that they did to the Jewish people, assumed the immediate financial responsibility of making restitution to the Jewish and even non – Jewish victims of national socialism. In another vein, Japanese – American were interned during second world war by the Roosevelt Administration on the charge that they might form a fifth column on behalf of Japan . Since late 1980's they have been compensated by Americans for seven year's of indignity. 50
Presently a European nation is paying reparation for an Arab African nation for colonial damages.
Italy pays reparation to Libya for damages during Colonialism.
The recent payment of reparation by Italy to Libya an Arab African country is a boost to the reparation drive for Africans. The Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi signed an agreement to pay Libya $5billion as compensation for damages inflicted on the country and its people during the colonial period. 51
The Italian Prime Minister acknowledged that the settlement was a "complete and moral acknowledge of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era". Col , Gaddafi on his part said, "in this historic document, Italy apologises for its killing, destruction and repression against Libyans during the colonial rule". The agreement was the result of efforts between Rome and Tripoli , which went on for years. It is worthy of note that the payment will be tied to investment and infrastructure. $200million would be paid annually over the next 25years through investments, the main one begin a coastal motorway between the Egyptian and Tunisian borders. As a goodwill gesture, Italy also returned an ancient statue of Venus, the headless "Venus of Cyrene", which has been taken to Rome in colonial times. There will also be a Colonial era mine-clearing project. Libya on its part will strengthen her borders against illegal immigrants and undertake agreement on sale of crude oil. 52
Libya was occupied by Italy in 1911 before becoming a colony in the 1930's and it became independent in 1951.
There are many lessons from the compensation paid by Italy to Libya . The call for reparation is feasible and in fact achievable. The process may take many years as can be seen in the agreement between Italy and Libya , but with focus and tenacity of purpose it can be achieved. Reparation is to be paid by all those who have participated in the slave trade and slavery of Africans. Apart from monetary compensation, there should be compensation lied to investments and infrastructure projects.
One observation I note in the story as reported by the B.B.C News was that the caption in English was under an amorphous title " Italy seals Libya colonial deal" which did not reflect the true picture of the content and what actually transpired. It is after reading the story that one can get the real import. Perhaps, this is done to cover the fact that a Western nation is paying compensation to an Arab- African nation. It may also be an attempt to down play the fact of reparation payment, so that other African countries should not follow suit.
The opening paragraph of the English version of the news was also nebulous in nature. It reads,
"Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi has signed an agreement to pay Libya $5billion as a part of a deal to solve colonial era dispute." 53
The Arabic version of the news was more direct, poignant
and succinct.
It reads: Italiyaa tadfa c u 5 milyaraat dulaar ila Libya . 54
Meaning: Italy pays $5billion to Libya
Another Arabic version says: Barliskoni fi Libya litawqi c itifaaq ta c widat c an intihaakat al-isti c maar
Meaning: Berlusconi in Libya to sign agreement over colonial crimes.
I do not want to believe that the Arabic version of the news was an attempt by the West to curry favours from the Arab world.
Instead of saying Italy pays compensation or reparation to Libya , the B.B.C News is calling "a spade a farm implement".
The Modern trends in the slavery of Africans
The new face of enslavement of Africans is child and human trafficking within and outside the continent. The abuse of child labour, child soldier, and the desperate attempt to migrate to Asia, Europe and America for greener pastures. The vestiges of slavery still found in some African countries particularly the Sudan and Mauritanian are of serious concern. Mauritania outlawed slavery in 1980, apparently because its two earlier prohibitions (in 1905 and 1960) were largely ignored and unsuccessful. In August 2007, Mauritania criminalized slavery. The periodic re – visit of the issue of slavery in Mauritania is a sure sign that slavery still goes on in that country. The persistent attack of the Janjaweed Militia on the African populace on Darfur , Sudan has become an open sore that has refused to heal. (Constrain of space would not allow me to go into details) All these are pointers to the fact that the issue of slavery in the African continent will remain a topical issue in the foreseeable future.
Concluding Remarks.
I visited the Elmina castle in Cape Coast , Ghana shortly before this conference to do some field work. I have earlier visited slave sites in Badagry , Nigeria and Quidah in Benin Republic . I must confess I do not usually weep in public but during the tour around the castle I shed tears twice. This was partly due to the lucid and moving presentation of the tour-guide and the reality of seeing vividly the inhuman nature of how my forefathers were transported out of Africa ! The tour-guide introduced to me a book by Ato Ashun , titled Elmina, The Castle and the slave trade. He claimed the book is used in Ghanaian schools at the J.S.S. level. If that is officially confirmed, it would be a good example from Ghana in the teaching of the history of Africans and what transpired in the history of the continent among continental Africans and Africans in Diaspora. Perhaps the questions that should engage our attention in curriculum development are, what do we teach at the primary and secondary levels? At what level do we teach the whole gamut of African history.? Should we localise the teaching of epochal events that are peculiar to certain areas or generalise it to form part of the curriculum for other areas?
The African continent was comprehensively bled of its human resources through slavery. This has partly accounted for its underdevelopment up till the present moment. The cruelty and depth of the slavery of Africans made the black Africans synonymous with slave and slavery. This is irrespective of the fact that slavery was as old as humanity and the word for slavery comes from European slavs.
The situation in international scholarship, particularly the Arab-Israeli conflict and its effects on the discourse on Arab-led slavery has made it imperative for African scholars to be in the t vanguard on the issue of Arab-led slavery of Africans. We cannot afford to leave the field alone to scholars from outside. The African scholars must employ the use of dialogue and round-table conference. In this endeavour all hands must be on deck.
All those who participated in the enslavement of Africans, the Europeans, the Arabs, Turkish people, etc. should all share the guilt and carry the burden of their crime. There should be no buck passing.
Although the Islamic empire, which the Ottoman caliphate was part, was a large conglomeration of nations consisting of Arabs, Persians, Africans, Berbers, etc, the centrality of the Arabs cannot be disputed. They were the founders and the catalysts for the spread of octopus conglomerate. At any rate, the slave trading activities of the Arabs in Africa are well known, even if other nations were also involved. Consequently, the use of the term Arab-led slavery of Africans or Arab enslavement of Africans is in order.
The mischievous use of religious term should be carefully handled. The Europeans who led the Trans-Atlantic slave trade were Christians, yet their slave trade has not been called Christian slave trade.
The Arab-led-slave trade consists of the good, the bad and the ugly. Among the good side is the integration of the Africans to the Arab society, which had produced rulers of African descent. A phenomenon we are expectantly looking forward to happen in another African Diaspora. Eunuchs, professional soldiers, plantation labour are many aspects of the ugly side.
The call for reparation from the Arabs is premised on the fact that there is need for restitution for the crimes and damages of slave trade. The call for reparation from the Arabs is not a call made solely for money. There is no material or financial compensation that can redeem the sufferings, underdevelopment and permanent sears of slavery. The call for reparation is to alleviate part of these problems.
The Arab and Middle East nations we are asking for restitution are not poor, and I do not subscribe to the notion that their prosperity is 'an accident of wealth.' The wealth is there for a purpose. They need to compensate the African people who suffered for the development of these areas, those who made it comfortable for living when it was a barren desert and oil was yet to be discovered.
The activities of the ruling class in Africa with a few exemption have been an unmitigated disaster. They should not be entrusted with the reparation fund. Rather, non-governmental bodies, not-for-profit organizations, professional bodies and the association of Africans in Diaspora should come together and form a managerial body for the fund. A large chunk of the fund should be tied to development projects, investment and infrastructure. The reparation coming from Arabia and the Middle-East should take care of the areas where their trading activities are well pronounced. The East African coast, the West African slave market territories, the cities and towns that fall on the path of the slave routes.
The declaration of the conference on Arab-led slavery of Africans held in Johannesburg in February, 2003 is worth noting and deserves the attention of every African to bring into reality. It condemned in the strongest possible terms, all forms of slavery, historical and contemporary, in all parts of the world. It also calls far apologies and reparations for Africans, given the fact that the millennia-long Arab-led slavery of Africans had wreaked incalculable damage on Africans and African society. The declaration calls for a civilization dialogue between the Arab and African peoples.
The call for reparation, I want to conclude, is to alleviate part of the problem of the past and forestall in the future the recurrence of a misfortune of such horrendous dimensions.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
• Elikia M'Bokolo, Afrique noire Historie et civilizations, Haiter-Aupolf, Paris 1995, Vol.1 p. 264; Ralph Austen, African Economic History, James Curey, London 1987, p. 275.
• "History of Slavery", Wikipedia, < http://enwikipedia.org.wiki/history > of slavery. retrieved 15 September 2008.
• Ato Ashun , Elmina, The Castle and he Slave Trade , Cape Coast , 2004 p. 35.
• The use of Arab slave trade or Arab-led slavery of Africans has been criticized by Owen Alik Shahadah. See "Arab Slave Trade", < http://www.arabslavetrade.com .>
• John J. Miller , "The unknown slavery: in the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over" National review 20 May 2002 <http://www.encyclopedia.com/doe/IGI-85410331.html.>) retrieved 15 September 2008.
• "Bernard Lewis", Wikipedia ( http://en.wikipedia . org/ wiki / Bernard _ Lewis) retrieved 15 Sept. 2008.
• Joel Pollak "Teaching Arabic and Propaganda" Washington Post Staturday, July 15 2004 p. A15.
• Ibid.,
• Badilocks http://www.luoamerican.com/badilocks/2008/06/the-trans-saharan.html . retrieved 15 Sept. 2008
• John , J. Miller , The unknown slavery in the Muslim world that is an it's not over " National review 20, May 2002.
• Ibid.,
• Kwesi Kwaa Prah, Ed. Reflections on Arab-led Slavery of Africans Cape Town : CASAS, 2005 pp. 3, 4.
• John, J. Miller, The unknown slavery in the Muslim world that is and it's not over " National review 20, May 2002.
• Ibid.,
• J.O. Hunwick, 1978, "Black Africans in the Islamic World, Understudied Dimensions of the Black Diaspora". Ta'rikh p. 27.
• Ibid.,
• See J.A. Oluwatoki , The Contribution of Africa and African Diaspora to Middle East History and Politics, Africa and The African Diaspora Aspects of an Experience, ed. W. A. Alli , Jos Mazlink Publications, 1999, p.31. See also Lanepole, Stanley. A History of Egypt In The Middle Ages, (New Impression of 4th ed. London ,1968, p. 87.
• J.O. Hunwick, 1978, Black Africans in the Islamic World…, p. 28.
• Jamal Abu Nasr . A history of the Maghrib , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press,1973, p.78.
• Ibid., p. 80.
• J.O. Hunwick, Black Africans in the Islamic World…, p. 28
• Ibid., 28
• Ibid., 30
• Ibid., 31
• Idem.,
• Idem.,
• Idem.,
• Idem.,
• Idem.,
• Alik Owen Shahadah “The Arab Slave Trade” < www.arabslavetrade.com .> retrieved 15 Sept. 2008.
• Oseni, Z.I. The revolt, of black slaves in Iraq under the ‘Abbasid Administration in 869-883 C.E., Hamdard Islamicus, Vol.12 No.62 p. 61.
• Ibid., 62.
• R. Brunschvia, c Abd. Encylopeadia of Islam Leiden , 1983, Vol.1 p. 24.
• Ibid., p. 25.
• Muhammad , Abdul-Rauf. Bilal Ibn Rabah , Washington :American Trust Publications, 1977,p. 60.
• Idem.,
• See Imam al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid. Ihya' c Ulumuddin, Beirut : Dar al-kitab al- c Arabi, n.d., Vol.2 pp.49-52. For further Prophetic exhortation on slaves and the attitude Of leading Companions to slaves see the sub-section Huquq al mamluk.
• Oseni, Z.I. "The revolt of Black Slaves…," p. 57.
• Abdul-Rauf, Muhammad . 1977, Bilal Ibn Rabah , 59
• J.O. Hunwick , "Black Africans in the Islamic World…," 23.
• Idem.,
• R. Brunschvia , "Abd" Ecyclopeadia Of Islam, Leiden , 1983, Vol1 p. 26
• Idem.,
• Idem .,
• J.F. Ade-Ajayi, “Towards African Renaissance in the Twenty-first Century” Journal of Black African Arts and Civilization Vol.1 No. 1, 2001 pp.63,64.
• Hakeem B. Harunah The Political and Socio-cultural Factors in the West African Slave Trade. Lagos : CBAAC 2001, pp 89,90.
• Oko Edet Uya, Contemporary Issues on Slavery and the Black World. Calabar: Cals Publishers, 2003. pp.37,38
• Edward Scobie, “Reparations for African Peoples” paper presented at the First Pan-African conference on Reparation, Abuja , Nigeria . April 27 – 29 1993. p. 18.
• A.J. Grant and H. Temperly. Europe in the 19 th and 20 th Centuries (1789 – 1950) . London : Longman, 1969 p. 436.
• Armstrong M. Adejo "Reparation for Africa: The imperatives for the African Diaspora" in Africa and the African Diaspora Aspects of an Experience ed. W.O. Alli, Jos, Mazliaks Publications, 1999 p. 81.
• B.B.C News http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2 hi/europe/7589557.stm . Published 30/08/2008 16.49:16GMT.
• Ibid.,
• Ibid.,
• B.B.C. News http://bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr-/hi/arabic/middle_east/news/newsid-7590000/7590194.stm.
• BBC News http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-h/arabic middle east-news /newsid.75889000/75897 published 30/08/2008 12:14:50 GMT.
