INTRODUCTION
The indigenous name of the present day Eritrea used to be BAHRI-NEGASI (Masters of the Sea) or BAHRI-MEDRI (Masters of the Sea and Land). The name Eritrea is a colonial heritage deriving from Latin MARE ERYTHREUM (Red-Sea). In spit of its colonial origin, the people preserved the name Eritrea as their symbol of resistance.
Geographically, Eritrea shares common boundary with the Sudan in the north and the north-west, with Ethiopia in the south and Djibouti in the south east. Eritrean topology is divided into six different types of landscapes: highlands, lowlands, the western plains, the northern hilly areas, the Red-Sea coast which is 1000 square miles, and there are about 100 small and big islands.
THE PEOPLE
Eritrea is a mosaic of nine different nationalities. The highland plateaus are inhabited by sedentary cultivators, while the lowland plains are semi-nomads and the coastal areas are inhabited by either fishermen or traders. In the highlands of HAMASSIEN, SERAYE AND AKELE-GUZAY people speak TIGRIYGNA (an ancient written language with GE'EZ script), and majority are Orthodox Christians with minority Catholics, Protestants and Muslims. While in the lowlands, the BENI-AMER and TIGRE are majority Muslims and speak TIGRE , the Bilen live around Keren and speak Bilen, they are half Muslims and half Catholics. In the coastal areas, the ethnic group TIGRE , AFAR and SAHO speak TIGRE , AFAR & SAHO, the western plains are inhabited by the Kunamas and Naras and speak KUNAMA & NARA respectively. Languages are named after their origin or their ethnic group. Among the nine nationalities only the RASHAIDAS speak ARABIC, the most resent migration to the country.
In Eritrea both Christians and Muslims alike are patriarchal societies, only the Kunama ethnic group are matrilineal.
PRE-COLONIAL
Eritrean pre-colonial history dates back to the Axumit Kingdom in the 3 rd century A.D. The decline of the Axumit Kingdom was followed by small kingdoms. Local wars continued until the arrival of the Ottoman Empire . The coastal areas were conquered by Ottoman Turks from 1550 to 1848.
With the fall of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt occupied the coastal areas and the western lowlands in the Sudanese boarder up to1865. But in 1876, Egypt was defeated twice in the highlands, first in Guraa and then in Gundet. With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, European countries were computing among themselves to occupy the Red-Sea area. Italy purchased the port of Assab from a local Sultan in 1860 and chased the Egyptians form Massawa port. In 1880, Italy attacked the remaining parts of the country. Gradually, Italians conquered Eritrean highlands that were tired by the Egyptian war.
ITALIAN COLONIALISM (1890-1941)
Like all African colonial history, Eritrean history as well is made of military conquest, treason and collaboration. In the 19 th century the British and the French started to settle in the western coasts of the Red-Sea, and the Indian Ocean . The French settled in Obeck in 1882 and the English had already settled in the Sudan and Somalia (Zeila, Berbera and Socota) The British will chose Italy as an ally in the Red-Sea, in order to confront the French. Eritrea because of its location attracted so many foreigners. With the opening of the Suez-Canal in 1869, the Red-Sea became a very strategic area. In 1880 Italy attacked Eritrea with all its military might, but Eritrea won the war in DOGALI. Gradually the Italians conquered Eritrean highlands who did not recover well from the last two wars. From this date, Eritrea entered another phase of history. The whole Horn of Africa was in complete turmoil. King Yohannes IV of Tigrai entered war against the Sudanese Mahdists, and lost his life in 1889 in Metema. King Theodros of Gonder committed suicide rather than surrender to the British. Menelik, from Shoa province will profit from the vacuum created in Tigray and Gonder to proclaim himself king of kings with the help of the British and the Italians. The British will consider Menelik the only Christian ally in the area. In 1889, Italy will negotiate for its boundry at Uccali, and signed an agreement. “Consequently, Menelik and Count Antonelli signed the Treaty of Uccali at the same Village on May 2, 1889. The Italians received a great deal in return for this military alliance; the bill of sale of the MEDRI-BAHRI, from this point to be known as Eritrea . In effect, Menelik ‘traded' Eritrea and its inhabitants to the Italians to ensure his title and Crown…….Menelik signed a secret treaty of neutrality with Italy in return for the option to purchase 5,000 Remington riffles” 1 Its' destiny will be similar to the colonized peoples of Africa, Asia and South America; a common destiny of submission, exploitation and terror. Italian policy in Eritrea was that of settlement. “Italian colonialism nourished great hopes of agricultural riches to be harvested in Africa by masses of transplanted peasants from the impoverished Italian south. For that reason, unoccupied land and fertile strips along the rivers of Eritrea and Somalia were declared state domain”. 2 In 1930, Italian settlers in Eritrea numbered 5,000 individuals. But after one decade in 1941, the settlers' number will rise up to 70,000. Relatively, Eritrean peasants, the Orthodox Church and some semi-feudal farmers lost their fertile lands. Their lives were reduced to rural exodus and became proletarian in the gold mining. Many traditional chiefs and ruling classes were degraded and assassinated.
Right from the beginning Italy installed apartheid policy of segregation. Unlike the British and the French colonies, the people of Eritrea were not allowed to continue their education beyond the fourth grade. Fascist Italy, tried to avoid the creation of Eritrean intellectuals. There were no political parties, no freedom of speech, and Eritrean men were forced to become conscripts, or they were forced into unpaid labor. For the first time in Eritrean history women from the highlands will leave their villages and start working as maids with Italian families. Italian oppression and domination was doubly felt by women, for it was unknown for women to live outside their families. For the very conservative patriarchal society it was unacceptable for a woman to live outside her father's or her husband's place. These women were under-paid and at times they were malnourished and used to work from sun rise up to late in the evening. They were not allowed to get married and have children. They were alienated from their society. And for the first time in the history of Eritrea , prostitution was introduced in the cities. In a very conservative society, where baby girls were promised to marriages before their birth, in a society where child marriage was preferable in order to assure girls' chastity, where baby girls were (are) circumcised and infibulated in order to control and dominate their sex, Italian Colonialism brought another cultural and moral degradation to Eritrean women in particular and the Eritrean culture in general. In addition, Italian colonialists will intentionally sterilize Eritrean women those who went to see a doctor or a gynecologist in order to have children. In Amrit Wilson's The Challenge road, Mabrat one among the many Eritrean women interviewed says,
“Dr Vero was a gynecologist but when women went to see him for whatever gynecological problems he would perform a hysterectomy. He would do it under anesthetic without telling them in advance. Women go mad after that. I had that experience. It has happened to a lot of women. After the operation we have no menstruation, nothing. It was deliberately done to decrease the population of Eritrea ……there was nothing that the Italians did not do. Mabrat was divorced after this incident.” 3 Italians practiced these policies of dissemination until 1941.
In 1936, fascist Italy will attack Ethiopia , in order to realize its' dream of creating Italian east African empire. But the world has changed. Italian aggression was strongly condemned by Africans from the Diasporas. Activists like Marcus Garvey were committed to fight back against fascist Italy . By organizing demonstrations and petitions these intellectuals denounced fascist Italy . Some Africans from the Diasporas came to fight alongside the people of Ethiopia . Haile Selassie was living in England as a refugee, when his people were fighting back fascist Italy . In London , Marcus Garvey will denounce Haile Selassie as a traitor, and he will demonstrate in front of his residence. In 1941, when fascist Italy lost the war, Haile Selassie was brought to power with the help of the British and the Americans. Ethiopia became an empire not only by annexing different lands and peoples but also by collaborating with Europe and America . Ironically, the same country will become the symbol of liberty for the rest of Africa and the African Diasporas.
BRITISH MILITARY ADMINISTRATION - 1941-1952
Italy , once Britain 's best ally in the Red-Sea area, became enemy during the world war two. The British occupied ex-Italian colonies Libya , Somalia and Eritrea . British occupation in Eritrea will last for eleven years. British colonial rule in the 50s was a disaster to the Horn of Africa in general and Eritrea in particular. British imperialism will undo piece by piece everything that was constructed by forced labor during 60 years of Italian colonialism, from late 19 th century to mid 20 th century.
The British will intentionally dilapidate, dismantle, loath and sell, almost all small and big Industries, installed by Italians. The people of Eritrea were suffering from half a century of landlessness, and with the coming of the British they lost everything they have acquired during Italian colonialism. The British wanted to avoid, a well industrialized and urbanized independent country in the Horn of Africa. Countless Eritrean men and women who were working in Italian plantations, industries and factories were laid off without any compensation. The economic recession was terrible and qualified man-power was obliged to leave the country. British imperialists deliberately used the politics of impoverishment against the Eritrean people. In the 50s, no other country was abused as Eritrea . “The British removed or sold an estimated 86 million (pound) worth of industrial plant and equipment, including port facilities at Massawa and Assab. In 1948, the worst year of the post war depression, 637 businesses were closed and 10,000 Eritreans became jobless.” 4 Last but not least, the British decided to divide Eritrea into two parts. The lowlands and the coastal areas majority Muslims were to join the Sudan that was still under the British colony. While the highlands, majority Christians were to be given as a gift to their best ally Haile Selassie. This proposal was rejected by the people of Eritrea , both Christians and Muslims. Eritrea is a unique example in the history of British colonialism, where both Muslims and Christians rejected to be divided in the name of religion. People demonstrated to show their unity and discontent against Britain 's manipulative policy of dividing the country into two. The British had the idea of creating a Jewish colony in Eritrea and dropped the idea for different reasons. ‘The primary purpose of creating a Jewish colony in Eritrea was to divert Jewish immigration from Palestine and thereby to relax tensions in the British dominion in Palestine itself'. 5
The British will abolish the Italian segregationist laws and Eritreans were allowed to pursue their education beyond fourth grade. Besides, the formation of political parties, and freedom of speech were legalized. Eritreans remained suspicious on the cosmetic changes made by the new colonizers. Eritrean confiscated land during Italian colonialism still remained under Italians. The British will distribute fertile land to the remaining poor and landless Italians. Eritrean peasants manifested their anger by burning plantations owned by Italians. Both cultivators and pastoralists started to revolt and disobey the British rule. During the British rule, five political parties were formed to claim immediate independence of the country. Eritrean women's political consciousness and participation started during this period.
• MAHBER FIKRI HAGER ERITREA (MFHE) (ASSOCIATION FOR THE LOVE OF THE COUNTRY OF ERITREA ). Created by inhabitants of Asmara . They protested against the imperialistic policies of dividing Eritrea among the Sudan and Ethiopia
• ERITREAN LIBERAL PROGRESSIVE PARTY led by Tessema Asmerom in the high lands of Akele Guzay.
• MUSLIM LEAGUE, in the low lands, Ibrahim Sultan as secretary general.
• INDEPENDESTIST BLOC, founded by ex-Italian soldiers and Muslims National Party in Massawa and the coastal area.
• UNIONIST PARTY was in favor of unity with Ethiopia . They were directly supported by Ethiopia .
During the British rule, the Americans will build three military bases in Eritrea ; a naval base in Massawa, air force base in Guraa and communications station in Asmara . They encouraged Haile Selassie, to take necessary steps against Eritrean political parties. Haile Selassie, financed by imperialist countries attacked Eritrean political party leaders. The vice president of MFHE Ato Abdulkadir Kebir was murdered and Ato Wolde Ab WoldeMariam the editor of Eritrean Weekly Gazette escaped seven assassinations in between 1947-1953.
After so many negotiations, in the 1950's, the UN decided to ‘federate' Eritrea with Ethiopia .
‘From the point of view of justice, the opinion of the Eritrean people must receive consideration. Nevertheless the strategic interest of the United States in the Red Sea basin and consideration of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our ally Ethiopia ' 6
After half a century of Italian colonialism and one decade of British occupation, Eritrea 's fate depended in the hands of United Nations. When Libya and Somalia became independent, the United Nations decided to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia , as an ‘autonomous unit with its own legislative, executive and judicial powers in the field of domestic affairs' in order to serve imperialists interest. 7
Under the British occupation most of the working class in the cities lost their jobs, as Italian industries were dismantled. Economic recession was very high through out the country. Eritrean women in general and those in the urban areas in particular were denied their right place in the society.
FEDERATION ERA 1952-1962
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After the harsh Italian colonialism and the outrageous British occupation, in the 50s Eritreans will discover Ethiopian feudalism of the middle ages. This period is marked by workers' and students' demonstrations. The people of Eritrea protested peacefully to Ethiopian violent repression. Ethiopian terrorism tolerated by the British during the 40s will continue its violence against the Eritrean people. In 1949 the vice president of the MFHE Ato Abdulkadi Kebir was murdered on the eve of his departure to N.Y. to protest against Ethiopian aggression. Right from the beginning Ethiopia used its army to repress peoples' protests. In 1953, Ato W.W. left the country for exile in Egypt . He was communicating with the Eritrean people by a radio program ‘Eritrean Free voice' from Cairo .
Eritrean political leaders appealed to the UN twice asking the world body to denounce Ethiopian violation against the Erirean institutions. In 1956, the official Eritrean languages Tigrigna and Arabic were replaced by Amharic the Ethiopian national language. Fifty four thousand Tigrigna books were burned. None of the former colonizers, not even fascist Italy had thought of burning Tigrigna books. By doing so, Ethiopians thought of erasing or destroying the Tigrigna language, its' people and history. In 1958, Eritreans were shocked to see Ethiopian flag flying in their skies. In 1959, Imperial law was imposed in Eritrea and the Eritrean government changed its name to Ethiopian administration.
Dawit Wolde GHIORGHIS , came to Eritrea first in 1961 as a young officer of the Ethiopian empire, and then in 1979, he came back as a governor of Eritrea for the ‘Marxist-Leninist' Ethiopia . In his own words, “I was there as a young officer the year before federation ended. None of the officers who were sent to Eritrea were told what federation meant….Perhaps the most serious mistakes made in reunification was that the military was not educated on how to proceed in Eritrea . The army should have operated with kind gloves, but it entered Eritrea in the 1960's with the mentality of a conqueror.” 8
For the Eritrean people federation meant the abnegation of their fundamental rights, repression and oppression.
During the federation period, Eritrean women were equally participating in all political activities. “A considerable number of women students were involved in the strikes and demonstrations, but unlike their male comrades they were in general not arrested ………..because the police and guards were Eritreans. But the women refused to leave their male comrades.” 9
In 1961, Idris Hamid Awate and Longhi founded the Eritrean Liberation Army in the lowlands, and in September 1962, Eritrea was purely and simply annexed by Ethiopia .
Federation was imposed against the will of the people in order to entertain imperialist's interest. Federation with Ethiopia brought with it, organized crimes, terrorizing and murdering Eritrean political party leaders, dismantling the remaining industries and forced poverty upon the Eritrean people.
Haile Selassie would immediately betray the UNIONIST PARTY; the Orthodox Church, and some semi-feudal Christian and Muslim population, who were in favor of the union. Their belief was to claim their confiscated land after the unification. In 1969, marshal law was proclaimed, as armed resistance became stronger. Haile Selassie used to say that ‘We need the land but not the people'. Ethiopia first attacked the lowlands, and gradually the whole Eritrea was on fire, except the cities. In the lowlands, villages were burned to ashes and its inhabitants slaughtered, and some children were found sucking the breast of their dead mothers. He had problems governing Eritrea as a whole. In 1973, his empire collapsed by famished and underpaid soldiers.
“Marxist-Leninist” Ethiopian leaders, the DERGUE, were no better than their predecessor. The DERGUE refused political negotiation with the liberation movements by calling them ‘bunch of bandits'. Mengistu's regime entered the war against the Eritrean people, by using slogans “drown every Eritrean into the Red-Sea” or “slaughter every Eritrean above seven years old”. DERGUE'S ethnic cleansing policy was supported by ex-Soviet Union and Israel . Mengistu was given military equipments, experts and advisers in order to chase a ‘bunch of bandits'. Ethiopia became the most highly militarized nation in Sub Saharan Africa. “Between 1953 and 1976, Ethiopia received $279 million aid and $350 million in economic assistance. In the same period, 3,555 Ethiopian officers received their military training in the United States .” 10 Unlike Haile Selassie, who was denying the existence of guerrilla war in Eritrea , Mengistu entered the war openly, by using Soviet Mig planes and Israelis napalm and cluster bombs. Countless lives were lost, towns and villages were disseminated. Even forests were cleared, accused of sheltering the guerrilla fighters. Almost every family went through the nightmare of purge, imprisonment and torture. In the cities soldiers were going from house to house looking for women's gold. Once they have loathed the house they will kill almost everybody, men, women and children alike. Innocent young and under age girls were taken from their homes and murdered after being raped. If parents refused to give their daughters' hand to an Ethiopian soldier, the whole family was murdered. The repression and crime was so high that parents were encouraging their daughters either to join the liberation movement or else leave the country. Last but not least, many young Eritrean girls raped by Ethiopian soldiers preferred to commit suicide rather than carry children of ultimate violence.
Here is an interview made by Amrit Wilson with an Eritrean woman Saba Asser, one of the survivors of Ethiopian prisons and torture, after eleven months of detention in one of Asmara 's toughest prison, Mariam Gimb. She refused to admit that she was working for the EPLF organization. She was not willing to collaborate and denounce her comrades.
“For each arrested person there are seven to eight interrogators. They tie your big toes and your hands together, your arms around your legs. Then they put a stick under your knees: this is called the number eight because your body is in the shape of an eight. They make a ball from the cloths and vomit of prisoners and put it in your mouth. They turn you up side down and then they start beating the bottom of your feet. You hang from the stick which they lay with its ends on two tables. Seven or eight people take turns beating you. When one gets tired, another gets over. On the first night they beat me all night from 5.30 p.m. to 4 o'clock the next morning. They wanted the names of my friends before they could flee from their homes as soon as the curfew was lifted at 6 in the morning. ……the second day at 8.30 in the morning they called me again…they beat me from 8.30 till 12 o'clock. One hour of number 8 and then 9. In number 9 my big toes were tied together and while I am lying on my belly they stood at the sides of my back.
Your hands are tied, they hit your feet with a stick made of leather. As they beat you their hands turn red and sometimes start bleeding. So you can imagine if it hurts them that much, how much it hurts the person that is being tortured.” 11
None of the so called democratic counties not even the United Nations denounced the genocide that was going on in Eritrea . Eritrean young men and women instead of collaborating with the fascist regime preferred to fight and die, and joined the liberation movement in great numbers.
THE ERITREAN REVOLUTION (1961-1991)
In July 1960, the Eritrean Liberation Front (E.L.F) was first founded in Cairo by exiled political activists. In 1961, the E.L.F. was active collecting funds and young recruits. In 1962, a group of pastoralists in the lowland of Barka and Gash region started the armed struggle, Hamid Idris Awate as their leader. At the same time, in the capital city of Asmara , young people started to organize themselves as the Group of Seven. The E.L.F. leadership came from semi-feudal background and was very conservative. The political leaders used to live in exile and were very much influenced by the neighboring Arab countries.
People from the lowlands mostly Muslims, adhered massively to the E.L.F. for two reasons. First, because they were victims of Haile Selassie's rule. Second, they identified themselves with the leaders of the liberation movement, who were Muslims and from the lowlands. The E.L.F. segregated the newly recruited fighters, according to their ethnic groups and religion. The leaders remained suspicious about the younger Christians fighters from the highlands who were joining the organization. Some E.L.F. fighters blamed Eritrean Christians, when Ethiopia annexed Eritrea . At times, Christians who came to join the liberation movement were murdered because they were suspected of being Ethiopian spies.
In 1965 the E.L.F. fighters increased in number, and organizational conference was held in Khartoum . They adopted the Algerian model of guerrilla tactics and divided Eritrea into four zones.
“The model upon which the plan was based was the Front Algrien de Liberation National, whose 8 year-long guerrilla struggle had ended in triumph in 1962.” 12 Contrary to the Algerian model, the zone commanders widened the gap among the four zones. The E.L.F., culturally, religiously and linguistically considered itself as part of the Arab World.
In the late 60s, Eritrean women started to join the organization; Ghidey, an ex-E.L.F. fighter compares her present life when she joined the organization. There were about 300 young girls aged maximum 23. They were given one month military training and joined the male comrades. She was assigned to identify spies among the new comers. “Since there was no political training, the attitude of men to women was unchanged; it was exactly as it was in society in general….e.g. when you give your report it would not carry the same weight as from that of a man.” 13 Later on she joined the E.P.L.F. and she compares the fundamental differences that separates women's role during the revolution. In her own words “I was given three months training….In the E.P.L.F. people are trained in basic political consciousness. Comrades support & love each other. Women are free to do what they like. They can fight; they can work; they can share the opportunities which the organization provides equally with the men and they can lead. E.P.L.F. women lead units. They are not shy: they have broken the chains.” 14
E.L.F.'s feudal administration was rejected by both Christian and Muslim young revolutionaries. In 1970, after a decade of political and religious skirmishes among different parties, Eritrean People's Liberation Party was formed. Revolutionary changes came to both Ethiopia and Eritrea simultaneously. Ethiopian revolution will be hijacked by a group of military junta. While that of Eritrea , will undergo so many cultural, social and economical transformations. The E.P.L.F. was mostly formed by educated and well trained progressive young men and women with different backgrounds. The founders of the E.P.L.F. identified themselves as part of the people and their approach towards the common people was more egalitarian. Contrary to the E.L.F., the E.P.L.F.'s revolution was based on sectarian society, where all ethnic and religious groups had their proper place. The ideological gap among the two parties was enormous that civil war was inevitable. In 1972, the E.L.F. and E.P.L.F. entered into a civil war, and in 1974 the E.P.L.F. won the war as well as the people's heart. The E.P.L.F. would promote mother tongue education for the nine nationalities and took a strong stand to promote women's and children's rights. Women were participating in all types of daily obligations equally with men. “The E.P.L.F. decreed a marriage law in 1977 banning polygamy, child betrothal, concubinage and dowry and giving women and children equal rights with men in marriages” 15 Another important factor was that the E.L.F. was reliant on the Arab World, while the E.P.L.F. believed in Self-Reliance. Eritreans inside the country as well as in the Diasporas supported the idea of Self-Reliance. The Eritrean revolution was unique for it relayed on its own people and fought bravely against all super-powers of the day.
“Arms are not the E.P.L.F.'s only source of strength, or even its main one. Right from the beginning when the organization was small and ill-equipped, right through the long years of struggle, the E.P.L.F. has always relied more on strategy than heavy weaponry and brilliant balance of politics and war taken than on brute force” 16
Urban and rural women joined the liberation movements and 40% of the guerrilla fighters were women with different backgrounds. Women were joining the armed struggle for two reasons. First the E.P.L.F. was fighting courageously against Ethiopian oppression and domination, while undergoing social revolution in the liberated areas. Second, Eritrean women broke through the negative image of women as weak and subordinate, by joining the revolution massively. During the war for independence and after, women occupied different posts as section heads in the military, as technicians, political cadres, educators, soldiers, doctors, and journalists equally with men. Eritrean women and young girls in the urban areas were organized by cells, group of 5 to 7 people. They were very active identifying Ethiopian collaborators, purchasing supplies (sugar, coffee, tea…) fund raising for the revolution distributing pamphlets and recruiting new members. One wonders the courage, the dedication, selflessness of Eritrean women, when they accomplished different and difficult operations in the urban areas “ planting bombs in factories to destroy equipment; putting time bombs in telephone boxes and electricity boxes so that there would be no electricity and no communications; robbing banks and so on” 17
In the late 70s, for example, Ethiopian plane was hijacked by Eritrean freedom fighters while flying to Kenya, and two of the hijackers were young women Martha and Almaz but killed by the on board security forces.
In 1976, the first underground revolutionary school for children known as the “ ZERO SCHOOL ” was opened in the liberated areas. The school started with few orphans and refugees, later on, they were joined by children of fighters and under age children. Young men and women fighters were teaching during the day to combat illiteracy and use to go to evening schools to upgrade their grades.
“In all liberated areas, in all kinds of situations, people are learning and teaching. Patients recovering in hospital become literate, fighters learn new non-military skills as they relax; traditional mid-wives learn how to use modern medical instruments and house wives learn how to farm. In addition there is the more conventional education program for the country as a whole.” 18
During the struggle for independence, the E.P.L.F. laid foundations for the future generations, by condemning harmful traditions that affect baby girls and young girls. Traditions like female circumcision, child marriage, arranged marriages, kidnap a woman (force her to become a wife) as well as rape were considered criminal. New laws regarding equal pay for equal job and the right to own a land were enforced.
Eritrean women fought and won double causes. First, the transformation of the patriarchal society, and second the liberation of the country, from oppressive and cruel colonizers.
However, in spite of the years of full dedicated participation and perseverance in order to achieve Eritrean independence, so many things remain to be done.
REFEENCE
1 Richard SHERMAN , Eritrea : The Unfinished Revolution,
Praeger Publishers, 1980, 11
• John MARKAKIS, National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa, Zed Books Ltd, London & New Jersey, 1990, 17, 36.
• Amrit WILSON, The Challenge Road : Women and the Eritrean Revolution, Earthscan Publications, Ltd, London , 1991, 22
• Quoted in Les GOTTESMAN, Fighting and Learning: The Praxis & Promise of Literacy in Eritrea 's Independence War, Red Sea Press, Inc, Lawrenceville , NJ , 1998, 44
• Okbazhi YOHANNES , Eritrea : A Pawn to World politics, University of Florida Press , Grainsville, 1991, 64
• Quoted in Les GOTTESMAN, Fighting and Learning: The Praxis & Promise of Literacy in Eritrea 's Independence War, Red Sea Press, Inc, Lawrenceville , NJ , 1998, 46
• Firebrace Ho& lland, Never Kneel Down, 21
• Dawit Wolde GIORGIS, Red Tears, Red Sea Press Inc, Trenton New Jersey , 1989, 37
• Amrit WILSON, The Challenge Road : Women and the Eritrean Revolution, Earthscan Publications, Ltd, London , 1991, 25
John MARKAKIS, National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa, Zed Books Ltd, London & New Jersey, 1990, 145
• Okbazhi YOHANNES , Eritrea : A Pawn to World politics, University of Florida Press , Grainsville, 1991, 225
• Amrit WILSON, The Challenge Road : Women and the Eritrean Revolution, Earthscan Publications, Ltd, London , 1991, 76-77
• John MARKAKIS, National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa, Zed Books Ltd, London & New Jersey, 1990, 113
• Amrit WILSON, The Challenge Road : Women and the Eritrean Revolution, Earthscan Publications, Ltd, London , 1991, 59
• Ibid 61
• John MARKAKIS, National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa, Zed Books Ltd, London & New Jersey, 1990, 246
• Ibid, 93
• Amrit WILSON, The Challenge Road : Women and the Eritrean Revolution, Earthscan Publications, Ltd, London , 1991, 73
• John MARKAKIS, National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa, Zed Books Ltd, London & New Jersey, 1990, 97
