Introduction
Africa is the cradle of humankind, so human beings across the globe are all her children. Thus those outside Africa are all her Diaspora. But this is a contested fact, because of racism. Many people of other pigmentation would argue otherwise. Thus when many people speak of the Diaspora they refer to Africans only or black people or people who consider themselves Africans despite their colour. We will also for the purposes of this paper also use the same concept. We will show how Africans interacted with people from various parts of the world, through various forms of trade, which eventually led to her subjugation and colonisation. Africa 's own trajectory of growth and development was muted and her destiny was now determined externally, a situation that has continued even after the post independence period. We argue that the birth of the African Renaissance presents an opportunity for Africa to use the present to fashion her future and with the involvement of her Diaspora.
Historical background of Africa
The science of paleoanthropology traces Africa as the origins of the human race, through various fossils found in South Africa (Taung child and Mrs Ples in the 1920s to 1940s respectively. The latter is estimated to be 2.15 million years old), Lucy (having lived over 3.2 million years ago) in Ethiopia in 1974. Recently human fossils aged over 6 million years were found in Tchad. Africa, particularly Eastern Africa , is widely regarded as the origin of humankind. These fossils are of the first homo-sapiens, the first to stand upright and walk on two legs and to develop big brains and create modern societies. According to the Oxford Atlas of World History, agriculture arose independently in both the tropical portions of West Africa . Ancestors of the all human beings came from one source in Africa and then migrated over time across the world. Adaptations to the different environments led to amongst others various skin colours and other geographic specific features.
As human development went through various epochs Africa was not left behind. It has a rich history of civilizations and empires; Benin , Ghana , Songhai , Mali , Egypt , Sudan , Monomotapa, Zulu and others. Africa was a leader in agriculture, education, mining etc. However, the continent had various challenges especially its dependence on oral knowledge, numerous small and vulnerable states, harsh climatic conditions, limited productive capacity, exposure to numerous diseases etc. Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent after Asia; covering 10% of the Earth's total surface area and about 14% of the world's population (estimated at ± 930 000 000 people) with 53 sovereign states including all the island groups. The continent has a wide diversity of nations which were cut across by colonial boundaries, numerous cultures and religions, with different levels of development.
Colonisation and the “scramble for Africa ”
Africa interacted with outsiders for centuries, mainly in commercial relations. Some of these outsiders eventually formed communities, especially in North Africa . However, what originally were peaceful relations transformed into subjugation between the seventh century and fifteenth centuries, when the Arab slave trade developed, taking as many as 15 million slaves from Africa to parts of the Muslim world. This was later followed by the Atlantic slave trade where Europeans transported millions more slaves to different parts of the globe. Africa 's development was negatively affected by these violent interventions by outsiders who used divide and rule to subdue various communities and got others to collude with them and then also subjugated them. Millions of slaves died during raids, whilst in captivity, during the journeys to new lands and upon their arrival there. The foundations of the global racism that exist today in which people of African origin are at the bottom and Caucasians at the top were laid then.
When the slave trade which had supported a particular economic epoch ended, European countries moved into establishing control over various parts of Africa , often after fierce resistance from local communities. In other case local communities and then leaders were tricked and robed of their lands and freedom under the pretext of being protected. By 1884 European countries – Britain, France, Germany, Holland, Portugal, Spain and Turkey met in Berlin and carved Africa up, with the exception of two independence nations namely: Liberia (partly settled by African Americans) and the Orthodox Christian Ethiopia (known to Europeans as “Abyssinia”). Africans were subjugated through divide and rule, harsh military might, economic strangulation, robbery and other unscrupulous means. Colonial rule existed until the collapse of white minority rule (Apartheid) in South Africa in 1994. Much as some might argue that colonialism had numerous benefits, the domination of one people by another can never be supported.
Colonialism took Africa off its own home grown development path and underdeveloped the continent, as writers like Chinweizu and Walter Rodney have observed. Colonialism under the British, French, Germans, Portuguese, Spanish bequeathed Africa numerous weak states, different languages, legal systems and foreign norms, undermining African values and cultures. African countries became sources of raw materials and markets for the colonial powers. They now produced what they did not consume and vice versa.
Definition of the Diaspora
The Diaspora of slavery occurred during the 15-17 centuries when Africans were hunted, captured, sold and transported to other parts of the world to be misused as indentured labour to develop those regions at great cost to Africa . Millions Africans were captured through the Arab slave trade that took Africans across the Sahara and through Eastern Africa to the Middle East and other parts of the world and the European slave trade which focussed on the Americas during the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
History shows that similar numbers are likely to have died during the process of capture, movement, whilst being held before transportation in Africa and during the voyages across the Atlantic . The slave trade destroyed various societies robbing them of their productive human resources, dislocating many people and destroying their infrastructure. Many societies that sided with the slavers to raid other communities were themselves soon targets. Africans were held in very inhumane conditions, branded like animals and sold off as chattels and property.
Over the years they lost most of their history, heritage and culture. They had to adapt in the foreign lands were they found themselves. But many of them also kept various attributes of their ancestral cultures.
Africa 's Diaspora has played an important role in relation to developments on the continent. Marcus Garvey led the back to Africa movement, which led to the return of the formation of Liberia in 1826 and its eventual independence in 184?. Sierra Leone also had similar beginning, but it remained a British colony late into the 20 th century. We can trace this to the Pan African movement originating from the 19 th century which is build on four pillars: a common historical heritage; common descent, identity and destiny; resistance to colonialism and racial discrimination and; determination to create new Africa or African Renaissance. In 1900 there was the first Pan African Conference involving numerous prominent Africans and the Diaspora, especially Caribbean personalities, like Sylvester Williams and others who built on ideas of Marcus Garvey to return to Africa and to rebuild the Motherland. The second Conference in 1945 included many future leaders of post independence Africa and the discussions centred on mobilizing support for the anti-colonial struggles in Africa . With the independence of Ghana in 195? these links continued with people like George Padmore coming to work in this country and supporting the independence struggles in other parts of Africa , especially white minority controlled states.
The second Diaspora has been a combination of involuntary and voluntary migrants. At the beginning of the C20th these were initially students abroad, a few workers, particularly in the shipping industry and soldiers from the two world wars. Africans who had been used in the so-called fights for democracy globally now called for the same at home. They wanted independence and they were supported by the Diaspora and other people globally. Various Pan-African conferences were held in America and Europe to fight for African independence and unity. Together these two Diasporas are estimated at over 160 million globally. Of this those who have recently come from Africa to Europe and North America are 2 and 1.6 million respectively. The largest Diaspora is in Brazil over 80 million, this after Nigeria with over 130 million is the largest population of Black people in one country, globally.
Political Independence
Ethiopia and Liberia were the only free African states in by the end of the 19 th century. In the 20 th century Egypt joined them in the 1920s, followed by other north and then west African states by the middle of the century. The formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963, was mainly to fight for the liberation of African from colonialism. It was a compromise between countries that wanted one united African immediately like Kwame Nkrumah who led the Casablanca group and those like Nnamdi Azikiwe of the Monrovia group which recommended the gradual approach. The OAU is not be remembered for much except its Liberation Committee which played an important role especially in the struggles against white minority rule in southern Africa . It was only in the mid 1990s that decolonisation was complete with South Africa , bar Spanish Sahara . The international community played a vital role in the liberation struggles, especially in southern Africa . The Diaspora was prominent in supporting Africa decolonisation struggles, using this to fight for their own rights in Europe and the Americas . International support included lobbying for cultural, economic and sports boycotts of these minority regimes; providing resources to the liberation movements and exiles, scholarships, accommodation and other forms of assistance.
The post-independence period over the past century has been a mixed blessing. Africa has witnessed 70 coups and 13 presidential assassinations between the period of the 1960s and 1980s. Between 1960 and 1990 there were numerous conflicts estimated to have caused over $300bn, displaced millions and damaged communities, infrastructure and institutions. Many countries were ruled for long periods by either one party or military dictators. Human rights abuses, corruption, weak administrations, waste and pilferage and poor economic policies were the norm. This led to huge dependency on aid, high levels of illiteracy, numerous pandemics causing tremendous health challenges and high death rates, plus over 500m living in poverty.
Although Africa as a continent has abundant natural resources, it remains the world's poorest and most underdeveloped region. Widespread poverty, malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health affect a large majority of the people who reside in the African continent. On average, in 2003 it was poorer than it was in 1973. For instance, 36.2% of the population are living under $1 per day. According to the United Nations , the bottom 25 ranked nations (151 st to 175 th ) were all African.
However, over the past two decades there has been a rebirth as peace broke out across the continent, better policies were implemented, the rule of law returned and Africa sought to solve its problems. Many countries have grown at an average of 5% annually, investment is rising and there is a commodity boom, fuelled mainly by demand in China and India . Some nations in the continent have experienced sustained economic success, most notably South Africa , Mauritius , Tunisia , Botswana and Nigeria . There is also growing people to people interactions across borders in Africa , involving business, cultural exchanges, education, employment, tourism etc.
Formation of African Union
The OAU was criticised for being a club of rulers who chose to spun interference in each other's affairs, no matter what. Consequently, genocides, mass abuses of human rights, poor economic policies, one party states, military rulers were the popular images of Africa . In the economic sphere there were numerous OAU plans and the most popular and comprehensive being the Lagos Plan of Action in 1980. But the implementation record has been poor.
The relatively poor performance of the OAU in the economic field and slow progress in continental integration led to the conceptualization of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) by South Africa, Nigeria, Algeria, Egypt and Senegal and its launch in 2001; an African economic programme building on the Lagos Plan of Action of 1980. This led to the transformation of the OAU into the African Union (AU) in 2002; consisting of all Africa's states (except Morocco ) established to further enhance continental development and integration. The AU offers hope for greater cooperation and peace through its NEPAD blueprint, which has the following primary objectives:
• To eradicate poverty;
• To place African countries, both individually and collectively, on a path of sustainable growth and development;
• To halt the marginalisation of Africa in the globalisation process and enhance its full and beneficial integration into the global economy; and
• To accelerate the empowerment of women.
The NEPAD Secretariat is based in South Africa and there is a Heads of State Implementation Committee made up of Algeria , Egypt , Nigeria , Senegal and South Africa , countries that spearheaded the formation of the organisation. Both these bodies report to the AU Summit regularly. The AU has established certain principles for membership, including democracy, rule of law, respect for human rights etc. This has led to the large number of multiparty elections during this decade and over 20 countries have signed for A frican P eer R eview M echanism .
Furthermore, the AU is leading the way in defining regional and sub-regional programmes for the continent which should engender greater integration and cooperation amongst African countries. The AU has defined five sub-regions in Africa viz Central Africa, Economic Community of Western African States (ECOWAS), Southern African Development Community (SADC), Of course there are many more political or economic grouping s in Africa cutting across these five sub-regions. Noting that no continent or country is an island, Africa has indicated what its needs and our international partners now need to show their solidarity with us. In seeking international partnerships we will choose carefully ie those who really want genuine partnerships of equally and mutual respect.
The following principles of NEPAD should be considered in order to strengthen and develop a political framework for cooperation between Africa and its international partners:
• Good governance as a basic requirement for peace, security and sustainable political and socio-economic development
• African ownership and leadership, as well as broad and deep participation by all sectors of society;
• Anchoring the development of Africa on its resources and resourcefulness of its people; Partnership between and amongst African peoples;
• Acceleration of regional and continental integration;
• Building the competitiveness of African countries and the continent;
• Forging a new international partnership that changes the unequal relationship between Africa and the developed world; and
• Ensuring that all Partnerships with NEPAD are linked to the Millennium Development Goals and other agreed development goals and targets ( http://www.uneca.org/era2002/kit/era_Businessday.htm ).
Over the past seven years there has been a varying picture in the implementation of NEPAD programmes at the national, sub-regional and continental levels. Limited capacity at the NEPAD Secretariat, insufficient resource mobilisation, divisions within the NEPAD Implementation Committee, competition between NEPAD and the AU are some of the challenges facing Africa in implementing its development programmes.
Political and social performance of Africa
Africa is presently experiencing rapid urbanization across various countries, fuelled by both internal and external migration. Internally there are high rates of rural urban migration which is coupled with natural growth of the latter population. External migration is mainly to countries where there are commodity booms, high economic growth rates and perceptions of better opportunities and good governance. In addition to the above there are large numbers of Africans who are leaving the continent. Consequently, Africa has a combination of receiving or sending countries and some that display both attributes. Migration, especially of skilled personnel is robbing sending countries of their development potential; whilst the receiving states gain from this extra human capacity. Migration is also posing challenges like increased crime, insecurity, straining the infrastructure of receiving countries, etc. But there are benefits like spread of new cultures, development of new enterprises, immigrants challenging locals to work harder etc.
African multinationals investing both on the continent and globally in agriculture, aviation, banking, education, infrastructure, manufacturing, mining, retail, telecommunications, tourism, transport etc have seen an explosive growth. This is leading to increased capacity building, strengthening of institutions, growing economic development, positive branding, a growing middle class, job creation and poverty reduction. The breakout of peace in previously war ravaged nations and the reduction in conflict means there are less than ten countries at war unlike less than a decade ago when almost twenty countries were at war. Consequently, there has been tremendous growth in regional trade, travel and tourism. This has led to vigorous GDP growth of over 5% during the past two decades in Africa and with sustained commodity demand especially from China and India this growth is expected to continue.
Nevertheless, OXFAM in its latest report on arms purchases shows the link between crime, conflicts and development challenges across a number of African countries. Those mired in conflict being the worse performers in socioeconomic development these include DR Congo , Somalia , Sudan , Tchad. On-going conflict of varying levels across Africa , have since the 1960s cost more than $300 billion. Some conflicts like in Angola , DRC, Somalia , Sudan , Uganda have spanned more than 20 years on average. The destruction of communities, and deep division of nations means sustainable peace will continue to elude many of these countries. Furthermore, development in these countries has been set back for decades. A vicious cycle of weak states, deprivation, high levels of poverty and violence becomes their fate. Others like South Africa that have spent huge amounts on arms deals, have sacrificed substantial development opportunities.
Furthermore, rapid urbanization, poor waste management infrastructure, inadequate housing, inadequate urban planning, growing informal settlements, high crime, increasing poverty, weak linkages between rural and urban areas, over reliance on few commodities, inadequate job creation, poor agricultural production, corruption and weak institutions are some of the challenges facing Africa.
Highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS globally, 24.5 million living with AIDS, 2.7 million infected by the end of 2005 alone, mainly in southern Africa . Various countries have with the support of the international community implemented programmes to prevent and treat this pandemic. Added to these are other health challenges like cholera, malaria, tuberculosis, typhoid, river blindness, which continue to cause high death rates across Africa .
Inadequate access to potable water, leads to poor sanitation and spread of diseases. Women and children, especially girls spend an inordinate amount of time searching for water and energy like firewood. Roughly 500 million of the continent's 932 million population lack access to electricity. Flying over Africa at night one usually only sees few lighted areas, mainly in the north and south.
Interestingly, the recently released 2008 Mo Ibrahim Foundation index (measuring economic stability, corruption, security, human rights, laws, elections, infrastructure, poverty and health), using two year old data indicates that in sub-Saharan Africa, 31 out of 48 countries have seen an improvement in corporate governance. Liberia achieved the best improvement and Somalia is the worst performer. However, there is synergy with the findings of OXFAM on conflict ridden countries and poor performance.
However, the report also indicates that thirty countries improved their macroeconomic stability and financial integrity. Consequently, foreign direct investment to Africa is also growing, averaging over $20bn annually, though this is a few countries. This improving investment climate is having spillover effects leading to further growth in different sector.
Factors underpinning Africa 's economic performance
Over most of the post-independence period many African countries have been raw material producers will little value add to their products. These countries received little returns for their exports whilst they paid high prices for imports. The economic climate was not always favourable for investors and there were high levels of corruption and red tape. There was no guarantee about the rule of law. Many of the manufacturing plants established were not profitable or the goods produced were not competitive. Foreign aid was used to top up budgets and numerous foreign technical experts were spread across Africa . Many countries became highly indebted to global financial institutions and commercial banks. The decades of the 1980s and 1990s were lost decades for various countries and people. Consequently, the World Bank and International Monetary Fund and other financial institutions advised various countries to implement structural adjustment programmes. The belt tightening may have worked for sometime but at great cost. This included right sizing of the public sector, removing subsidies from government services, especially education, food, health, transport, utilities etc. There was a rise in migration as many people sought better opportunities in better performing countries in Africa or abroad.
However, economic performance began to improve in numerous countries towards the end of the last decade. Higher commodity prices, increased demand from China , India and other countries, couple with the adoption of the NEPAD and other principles for good governance have led to a better economic climate across Africa . There is growing foreign direct investment, particular in commodity producing countries or those with better managed economies.
The African Union Diaspora programme
Amongst our international partners, the Diaspora is perceived differently, the AU, considers it the sixth region of Africa . In fact it might be an anomaly to speak about a specific African Diaspora, since the human race originates from Africa and spread around the world. However, for the purpose of this presentation we mean people who consider themselves of African descent and are resident outside Mother Africa or have migrated from their original country of birth to another one on the continent. Having noted wherever they are found, we need to develop relationships with them, especially educating and informing them about Africa, as many of them rely on the media which largely writes negative stories about Africa . We must establish cultural and educational institutions in the Diaspora so that African culture, history, languages etc can be taught to our people. Those who do not know their past can easily become rootless.
Africa 's Diaspora is very complex to define in terms of who it covers and what regions of the world are included. Furthermore, there has to be self acceptance of the identity being proclaimed. Africa has different population groups, from Africans, to Arabs, Chinese, Europeans and Indians. Alternatively, we can use places where these people are found. This will range from Asia, the Caribbean, Europe, the Americas and Middle East . These people can be considered both as African and Diaspora in relation to their origins. How if atall should they seek to lobby their original homelands of their present ones in Africa ? Then you have thousands of people of Indian origin expelled by Idi Amin from Uganda in the 19?0s mainly to Britain , how if at all should they relate to their former Motherland? In fact would they feel any affinity for the place? The same question can be asked of the white minorities who migrated from countries like Angola , Mozambique , Namibia , South Africa , Zimbabwe etc, both before and after independence in these states. Many of them have left for Australia , Europe, the Middle East and the Americas . They are often bitter at the loss of political and socioeconomic power and lobby against any support for their former homelands.
Thus it could be people and/or places. What is unclear is how these people or places will be represented in the AU? The Diaspora in some cases are the majority and are the state especially in the Caribbean . In other countries they are a minority, but with significant influence, these include Brazil , Britain and USA . They are also growing minorities in various countries in Europe . The AU in 2003 amended its Constitutive Act to cater for integrating the Diaspora at its 6 th region. The AU defined the Diaspora as any people of African origin outside Africa who consider themselves African. This self affirmation is important, because we cannot expect every person with African heritage to call themselves African.
The first Diaspora Forum met in Washington DC in 2002 and in September 2004, the first regional chapter was formed in the Caribbean . There were then numerous regional meetings organized by the AU and South Africa across the Diaspora. There were declarations and programmes of action agreed upon, by specific institutions over particular timeframes. This included the ministerial meeting in South Africa in November 200? which was a precursor to the planned Diaspora summit in 2008 in South Africa . Unfortunately, the summit was postponed because of the political changes in September 2008 in South Africa .
Some of the issues which have been discussed include: rekindling the historical and cultural bonds of Africans globally; initiating dialogue on the feint challenges facing Africa and its Diaspora; developing partnerships; and strengthening political and socioeconomic relations. Furthermore, how should the AU objectives on the African Diaspora be supported: through increased educational and cultural ties; improved knowledge about Africa and increased pride in this heritage; greater trade and investment within and between Africa and the Diaspora; and strengthening the participation of the Diaspora in national affairs and economies, especially in countries where they are minorities.
The African Union is developing structures to formally include the Diaspora within its ECOSOC – and the summit in South Africa was hopefully going to discuss the allocation of 20 new seats to members of the Diaspora. The question is how will these be distributed, since the Diaspora is so diverse? What interests and which people or populations will they represent? What size will constituencies be and will theyl be both within and across countries? How will the divide of state and non-state actors in the Diaspora be crossed? ECOSOC is largely made up on NGO representatives, will it be the same with Diaspora representatives? There are even more questions to ask on this programme which need clarity if the AU dream of the sixth region is to become a reality. But we must not get into a state of analysis paralysis. The process must be allowed to be an organic one, with broad guidelines to allow it to flourish. It will move at different speeds and depths in different parts of the world, based on local dynamics. We must learn from these and research them so that we record history
Opportunities and challenges for engagement between Africa and its Diaspora
The AU Diaspora programme has six focus areas: international affairs; regional commonalities; children, women and youth initiatives; and knowledge sharing. To these must be added questions of restitution, reparations, regeneration, restoring Africa to its rightful place globally and conservation of indigenous knowledge systems. Thus how, should Africa and its Diaspora engage? The engagement should include bilateral and multilateral relations between states. These relations at the governmental levels will include political, economic, cultural and other interactions. These already exist and are being strengthened daily. There are also relations between private sector entities, educational institutions, people to people contact and other ways in which Africa and its Diaspora should engage.
We need the Diaspora to lobby, be ambassadors and mobilize resources for Africa . Even more important, is for them to be re-integrated with the Motherland. They need to come to the Motherland so ever often to re-connect. Many other Diaspora do most of the above and we need to begin cooperating with our Diaspora to do the same. This will create a sense of pride and belonging from both sides. We then need to create a link back to Africa and call upon the Diaspora to lead in developing partnerships with us. It is not only a responsibility, but an obligation. If the Diaspora leads it creates an even bigger catalyst for others to support us. The way India has dealt with its Diaspora can teach us a lot. They even have a Minister for Diaspora Affairs and an annual Diaspora Day. Better late than never, Africa .
Since partnerships are two way streets we will need our Diasporan counterparts to also open up markets and create other opportunities in their regions for Africans and vice versa. We seek internships in various companies, investment missions, study tours to sell Africa . They must also lobby on our behalf in order to educate Americans about Africa . They must support organizations in the USA working on African issues. Foundations and NGOs in the Diaspora need to provide both financial, technical marketing assistance to Africa .
Is there space for party political representatives from the Diaspora on the AU's ECOSOC? In countries, particularly outside the Caribbean , Diaspora politicians in different sectors of government, especially legislators represent not only “their people”. So whom will they represent in the Diaspora, will they have mandates from all their constituencies? What roles can the Congressional Black Caucus in the USA; Black elected officials in Canada, Latin America, various European countries etc perform together with the Pan-African Parliament, sub-regional and national legislatures in Africa?
African Americans and their legislators were pivotal in the Clinton administration adopting the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) during the late 1990s. It provides greater market access for African products into the US . Unfortunately, Africa and its Diaspora have not cooperated sufficiently to utilize AGOA for their mutual benefit; Asian firms have been the biggest beneficiaries. Furthermore, African Americans have through various organizations lobbied for specific other policy initiatives for Africa . They have also sought to develop strong ties with various African countries, especially those from where the Diaspora is supposed to have come from. However, there have been challenges in the unity between Diasporans – African Americans; American Africans and Caribbean Americans. These communities across America have not always seen eye to eye and supported each other. There are divisions of class, geography, origin etc within and between these communities.
Thus, we must support the sixth region initiative of the AU, but be practical in recognizing that the Diaspora is large, disparate, diverse and complex. In the Caribbean there are numerous Diaspora nations largely populated and governed by the Diaspora. Then in the Americas , Asia, Europe and Middle East there are significant or small minority populations of the Diaspora in different countries. The Diaspora of slavery makes up the bulk of this population and is growing in prominence especially in Brazil , Canada and USA . In Europe, particularly the UK you have the double Diaspora, these being descendants of Caribbean Diaspora and Uganda Asians, who have migrated. They are joined by growing numbers of migrants from Africa . Belgium , France , Germany , Holland , Portugal , Spain and some Nordic countries also have growing Diaspora populations. So the engagement with the sixth region will be with individual countries and regional blocs like CARICOM and civil society in other countries.
There is a lot that Africa and its Diaspora can learn from the experiences of others. The United States is a society that was created by European migrants through the virtual elimination of the Native Americans. However, African Americans were not voluntary migrants since they came to the Americas as slaves. We have seen Americans with origins from Asia, Europe, the Middle East seek to influence the policies of their government with regards to their home regions. The Jewish lobby has a strong influence on Middle East issues, especially the biased policy toward Israel . Arab Americans have had a particularly difficult time seeking balanced policies especially after the bombings of 11 September 2001.
Other Diasporas, especially the European (Greeks, Ireland, former Eastern Europeans) and Asian (China, India, Japan) ones have sought to influence government to give greater aid, increased market access, better migration opportunities for their former countries and compatriots. They have also at a nongovernmental level provided huge resources to develop their former homelands, invested there directly, returned as tourists and some times gone back permanently.
We should be working towards creating a global African political and economic community of over one and half billion people and a trillion dollar market, covering Africa, Asia, Caribbean, Europe and the Americas. Africa is a rich continent in natural and other resources and these should be the foundation for the economic community between her and the Diaspora. The latter can mainly provide the human, financial and technological resources to be partnered with Africa 's resources. This will hopefully eliminate the huge poverty, deprivation and challenges that Africa faces. Of course this is a two way street and it is necessary that Africans also explore opportunities for using their comparative and competitive advantage in the Diaspora. The Caribbean Diaspora is made up of nations and African countries should engage in bilateral and multilateral linkages across different sections for mutual benefit of the two regions.
There should also be partnerships formed between businesses from both regions leading to greater exchange of goods both raw materials and manufactured goods. It would be useful to consider barter exchanges in addition to normal bank transaction. Capacity building programmes must be developed and undertaken. We must share experiences in deal with both unique and similar challenges. Both short and long term work placements, learnerships and on the job training schemes must be implemented.
Similar endeavours must take place between organized labour between Africa and its Diaspora. They must seek to improve work conditions, skills and the benefits of works, as well as the implementation of international labour standards. The development of democratic and more equitable societies in both regions are other important areas of work that labour unions especially multilateral ones should engage in.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) compliment the work of other social partners, especially in the developing world, in meeting the needs of society. NGOs in both Africa and its Diaspora should be involved in implementing the MDGs, evaluating performance of governments in meeting both their national, regional and international commitments, as well as making sure the global community meets its obligations to these regions. There must be greater interactions between civil society in both regions, people to people exchanges so that we learn from each other, especially our common heritage, experiences and plan for the future together. We must not assume because we are family that there are no challenges. Slavery, colonialism, post independence conflicts, the cold war and various other events have divided us both in Africa, within the Diaspora and between Africa and the Diaspora. It is going to take a lot of hard work to create shared understanding, rebuilding of knowledge and bridges and vigilance to create African Unity and partnership with the Diaspora.
Apart from links between individual companies, business associations, industry bodies, national and regional chapters must all work together. The donor community should also support these ventures with resources in line with NEPAD. We must not assume goodwill or believe that every body out there wants Africa united and developed, nor for her to re-connect with the Diaspora. We will need to guard against the horsemen of Apocalypse who divide and rule, reek destruction and want to suck Africa and her Diaspora dry.
The AU has five sub-regions and they are another level for engagement. These sub-regions provide numerous opportunities because they comprise more than one country and therefore larger markets, common tariffs, similar standards and other commonalities. Companies can set up bases in specific countries and this provides access to the whole sub-region. There can also be cooperation between African sub-regions and others like CARICOM, MERCURSOR, individual countries in the Diaspora or companies. NGOs and organized labour in these sub-regions can also explore various means of cooperation.
So how can Africa and its Diaspora partner to change their destinies and make the 21 st century truly their's? Africa has 53 countries on the continent, and several Diaspora communities. We have a shared heritage, but because of colonialism, being located in different regions across the globe, we have very varying histories and experiences. So as we engage it is vital that we try and answer a number of hard questions as we create linkages between the two regions: what do we want, what are our strengths, what are our weaknesses, what are the opportunities and threats that we must both grab respectively? Who must engage with whom, how must this be structured etc? Are the engagements at the people, business, country levels?
As these questions are being answered (and there is not necessarily only one answer or right or wrong) there must be a move from contemplation to action. Entry points can be on the basis of shared language – indigenous ones, Arabic, English, French, Portuguese, Spanish etc. There might already be business links or perceived opportunities. There could also be an interest to delve deeper into one's heritage, learn more about Africa generally or specific parts of the continent.
Some countries like present day Benin , Ghana , Kenya , Mozambique , Nigeria , Senegal , Tanzania , Togo , were large suppliers of slaves and this creates umbilical cords and common culture with the Diaspora. Ghana and Senegal in particular have created ministries for the Diaspora and have structured programmes with specific goals for dealing with the Diaspora. Ghana offers opportunities for dual citizenship and has become a popular destination for the Diaspora. Most of the countries mentioned above also have large post-independence communities that have migrated abroad and these form further links for partnerships and cooperation with these regions.
The USA has supported unpopular regimes as long as its interests have been secured. Presently its energy interests and war against terror have seen her concentrating on North Africa, particularly because of the Middle East situation. The Gulf of Guinea is also becoming an important area of concentration. The recently launched AFRICOM, based in Germany highlights how security interests in the USA are driving its Africa policy. The presence of Diasporans like Collin Powell, Condeleeza Rice and Jandai Frazier being high ranking Defence and State Department officials in the USA did not bring much positive initiative for Africa It is interesting that having done very little during his period in public office, Collin Powell, in a Black History Month event in October 2008, in England he affirmed his African roots and the need for all African people to unite and fight for their development. The Africa policy of the USA has been driven by security and resource interests. What will change if at all will result were Barack Obama elected president of the USA? We must not believe that just having Diasporans in this largely white superstructure will be nothing but cosmetic in terms of change. The racism underpinning American society has come out strongly with many of them stating they will not vote for a Black man, showing the war we still have to bring about change.
Similar questions can be asked of some high ranking Black politicians in government and other sectors in Europe. We must understand they are part of particular superstructures, they are driven by certain principles and their national interests are not similar to those of Africa . The above is not to undermine the strong support the Diaspora provided for the anti-colonial struggles in Africa, but it to decry the reliance on a few high profile public figures to carry the torch. We must seek partnerships with organizations that have the objectives of supporting African growth and development. They are the ones we must put more energy into.
In Asia and the Middle East very few people acknowledge their African heritage openly. This might be because of the prejudice they would face or their seeing no connection to the Motherland. Similar situations exist with the Aborigines and other Diaspora communities in the Pacific, even though there is growing consciousness there about their African heritage. Being Diasporan is not enough, there has to be a commitment and an interest in Africa , a better world and affinity with one's heritage. The lesson here is that common heritage is an important but not sufficient condition for cooperation and solidarity to occur. There must be commitment as well. The world does not owe us, inspite of the exploitation and oppressions we have suffered from outsiders. We must pull ourselves by our boot straps and Africa must understand these challenges in order not to expect too much from certain quarters.
The present global system is supposed to be multilateral, but it is dominated by a few countries, especially in the West, even though new powers especially in Asia are arising. Through colonialism and imperialism coupled with self imposed challenges, regions like Africa have been at the bottom of the global system. It is unlikely that nations that benefit from this arrangement where they exploit our natural resources, use us as markets for their expensive goods, keep us dependent on aid and collude in our being weak will change the system voluntarily. It seems like China and India are benefiting from these arrangements and their increasing ties are not for altruistic reasons but for self gain.
International Cooperation
Over the past six decades there have been various international programmes s like agriculture, banking, energy, infrastructure, telecommunications, transportation, construction, retail, automotive, mining, broadcast media etc. seeking to assist Africa . Many these were developed with little input from Africans, especially the unpopular IMF and World Bank structural adjustment programmes. There have been others involving African leaders like the plans from some G8 summits, Britain 's Africa Commission, but many of them have turned out to be empty promises and were public relations exercises.
In 2000, the United Nations adopted the Millennium Development Goals for 2015 being to: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; reduce by half the number of people living on less than a dollar a day; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women at all levels; and reduce child mortality by two thirds among children under five and; improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. Furthermore, to: ensure environmental sustainability and reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation; develop a global partnership through and open rule-based predictable non-discriminatory trading and financial system and; address the needs of the least developed, landlocked countries and small island developing states. The MDGs cover many of the challenges facing Africa 's. However, by 2007, all African countries were off track in respect of achieving the MDGs mainly because on insufficient commitment by these countries and the international community especially the G8 and other donors reneging on their promises. We should explore how Africa and its Diaspora can cooperate around implementing the MDGs.
Individual countries ( Japan , US, China , India ), or some regions (Asia, European Union and South America) have developed Africa programmes. Some of these have been around for more than a decade and have clocked impressive results, though Africa generally benefits less that its partners. Others are very recent and not much implementation has occurred. What can the Diaspora and Africa do to turn the tables?
The present global food and financial crises are hitting Africa and some Diaspora states very hard. Insufficient food production means they have to utilise limited resources to import expensive agricultural inputs and food. In addition western food aid negatively affects local production often being sold at lower prices. Falling demand results in smaller exports and limited returns. International commitments of foreign aid are not fulfilled as developed nations look inwards. Africa and its Diaspora should develop various mutually beneficial cooperation platforms to deal with these crises? It is now useful to explore some practical examples or case studies of how the initiatives between Africa and its Diaspora can work.
Diaspora initiatives from Venezuela and Brazil
President Chavez of Venezuela shows us this. President Hugo Chavez of Venezuela when addressing the seventh summit of the African Union in Banjul , Gambia in 2006, quoted Simon Bolivar who in 1815 stated that “southern Americans, Americans of dark skin, Americans from Caribbean and Latin America, are neither Americans nor North Americans, we are rather a mixture of Africa and Indigenous America.” He stated today, Latin Americans were increasingly becoming aware of their African heritage. He outlined four projects for implementation between Africa and South America in the spirit of South South cooperation. These were PETROSUR (Petrolsouth) which would involve using the vast oil resources of both continents for local development, through receiving greater royalties from the oil companies. He expressed concern that unlike in Venezuela where the royalties were about 30 percent per barrel, plus income tax, these were as low as three or five percent across Africa .
Secondly, he refered to TELESUR (Televisionsouth) which would be a television corporation of the South, through linking Africa to this project that already existed in Latin America and the Caribbean . Next was a bank of the South; where the African Development Bank would be linked to a similar institution in Latin America . Lastly was a university of the South, for human resource development in both continents. The challenge is whether any of these ideas were implemented and if not why? If implemented what is the progress?
Brazil is another country where significant efforts are being implemented to regarding its African heritage. There is now a law requiring the teaching of African history in their primary and secondary schools system and growing ties with different African countries. There must be reciprocal programmes in schools in Africa studying Diaspora issues. India , Brazil and South Africa have formed IBSA as a trilateral partnership to enhance socio-economic development in the three countries which should then serve as catalysts for sparking growth in their regions.
Brazil and Venezuela are important partners in the Community of South American Nations which together with the AU met in Nigeria in 2006 and agreed on an 18 point Abuja Declaration on cooperation. In November 2008, the second summit will happen in Venezuela . Hopefully more effort will be put in implementing the Abuja Declaration and there is no need to increase the areas of cooperation, since much progress has not occurred since 2006.
World Bank – African Diaspora initiative
As a major provider of development assistance the World Bank was approached by the AU to support its Diaspora initiative. The World Bank has an African Diaspora Unit and African Action Plan in support of the African Union's sixth region concept. The action plan covers implementation of the MDGs, infrastructure development, ICT, enhancing economic competitiveness, strengthening institutions, especially the public sector, technical assistance and mobilisation and provision of financial resources. The World Bank will work with African countries, other donors, NGOs, particularly those concentrating on Africa and African Diaspora organisations based abroad. The development of the World Bank plan commenced in September 200? with the intention to commence implementation by June 2008.
Challenges have been the little awareness created around the World Bank plan, insufficient involvement and buy-in from African countries and Diaspora organisations, especially African immigrant ones in the USA. There has been limited mobilisation of the Diaspora especially those outside the USA .
In 2002, Africa received remittances of $22bn from its Diaspora; very close to the foreign direct investment it received. This figure is growing as more Africans migrate to the Diaspora. The World Bank is working with the African Development Bank amongst others to see how these resources can be better harnessed for Africa 's development. It has undertaken a comparative study of Latin America, China , India to see what lessons can be learnt about their Diaspora remittances programmes.
Oil and Gas sector case study
I am grateful to Mr Michael Surdakasa, a Diasporan of Nigerian, American and Caribbean origin, now living in South Africa , for the information on this case study. The oil and gas sector is significant and where $10 billion annually is spent on exploration and production. Major producers are: Nigeria, Libya, Algeria, Angola, Sudan and Egypt and smaller producers include: Chad, Gabon, Congo, Cameroon, Tunisia, Equatorial Guinea, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cote d'Ivoire. Other countries which have recently discovered oil include Ghana , Mauritania and Mozambique . Over the next decade more than $50 billion is expected to be spent on exploration, over 25% of the resources extracted being earmarked for China, India and the US. This provides huge opportunities for the Diaspora in the Americas, Caribbean and Europe, to supply the necessary technology, capacity building exchange opportunities; distribute downstream products from Africa; undertake joint human resource development
The South African government has developed the “South Africa Supplier Development Agency” to increase black participation in the sector – and interestingly within the South African paradigm, globally active companies like Shell, BP, Caltex, Total, and locally owned multinationals such as Sasol, PetroSA and Engen are all key supporters of this initiative. The challenge is that there is insufficient African capital, skilled personnel and an insufficient history of working in this sector. Although some progress has been made, a bigger impetus would result from cooperation with the Diaspora in this area. We must build networks across the logistics chain of the oil and gas sectors to ensure this success.
Furthermore, through the South African Oil and Gas Alliance, South Africa is developing a leading service center within the oil industry targeting particularly the Gulf of Guinea with training, repair and maintenance, fabrication, and exploration and production support to countries from Angola to Cote d'Ivoire and Mozambique to Sudan. Partnering with the Diaspora in this regard will be mutually beneficial for all. Providing technical assistance to enterprises and entrepreneurs within the Black South African community and partnering other African countries to fund exploration activities and create joint ventures in both down and upstream activities is an urgent necessity. Research will need to be undertaken in the other African countries to understand the markets and how indigenous business there can mutually cooperate with the Diaspora.
Broad-based Black Economic Empowerment - the example of South Africa
South Africa over the past four centuries suffered from a pernicious system of colonial and racist governance where the indigenous people were increasingly denied their humanity, their resources stolen and they ended up as strangers in their land and as drawers of water and hewers of wood. From 1948, the white minority state became even more vicious and inhumane. Millions of Africans were displaced, robbed of their land and denied citizenship. The struggle for change was a long costly one. The death of Apartheid in 1994 has wrought numerous changes and the country is constitutional democracy, working hard to achieve socioeconomic development for all our citizens, especially those who in the past were denied the benefits of citizenship and economic opportunities. As part of the above process we recognize that we must first rely on ourselves to bring about change, but that in a global village we must form partnerships with the international community. South Africa has a vibrant economy, highly trained workforce, strong transportation and other infrastructure. However, it is also a country deeply scarred by our divided past.
South Africa is a diverse country, sometimes refered to as the world in one country. Apart from the African majority South Africa has the largest population of Indian's outside of India . There are also significant numbers of Africans from the rest of the continent, Chinese and Europeans in the country. It has a stable and diverse, middle-income economy that boasts of a GDP of over $587 billion. South Africa 's economy accounts for a quarter of Africa 's overall GDP, 40% of its industrial output, has 45% of its mineral reserves and 50% of the electricity output. It is a leader in infrastructure, communications, manufacturing, and also is home to the 18 th largest stock market in the world with a capitalization of about $1200 billion, and is ranked as the 10 th most sophisticated banking market in the world with over 55 locally controlled banks, 12 foreign banks, and 5 mutual banks . . . and South Africa is the leading downstream petrochemicals producer on the continent. There are other countries on the continent with similar impressive statistics these include Botswana , Mauritius , Tunisia , which have performed consistently in developing their economies. How then must partnerships be engendered?
In dealing with the inequalities of the past South Africa has had to develop innovative policies, which have incorporated international best practice. We are not the first country to face these challenges. Numerous African countries, India , Malaysia and the USA are immediate examples where there have been programmes developed either for the majority or minorities in order to assist them with reaping the benefits of socioeconomic development. In order to ensure that the greater majority benefit in South Africa , the Broad-based Black Economic Empowerment Act of 2003 was developed and is now being implemented. Through the Act various sectors of the economy have or are developing charters and scorecards indicating how they must be transformed by 2014. There is a generic scorecard which covers – Ownership, Strategic Management, Skills Development, Employment Equity, Preferential Procurement, Enterprise Development and Corporate Social Investment with different weightings for each of the above facts, which together add up to 100%. Each of the seven factors have targets that must be met by 2014.
The ownership factor will require the availability of financial resources for Black (Africans, Coloureds and Indians; Chinese who were in South Africa before 1994 were added in 2008) to buy into both companies largely owned by White South Africans and also those that are multinational. Diaspora businesses and investors can partners with these communities in acquiring ownership of these businesses, using their own funds or seeking these from international sources.
There are also opportunities for cooperation in assisting Black South Africans to gain strategic management experience and skills in specific fields. They could serve internships in the Diaspora or have Diasporans come to South Africa for specific periods to provide the training. Under Preferential Procurement and Enterprise Development, they can teach local people how to prepare tenders and provide the required goods and services of high quality and punctually. Having provided investment in acquiring businesses, these can now supply the goods and services required, whilst also growing small, medium and micro enterprises (SMMES). Corporate Social Investment is an area with a long history in Europe and the United States particularly within Black communities. They can combine their experiences in assisting Blacks in South Africa overcome the numerous challenges and deprivations they face after about four centuries of colonialism and Apartheid.
In 2006, South Africa adopted the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative (ASGISA), which aims for 6% GDP growth annually. We will require international partnerships, particularly in investing in different sectors of the economy. There are tremendous opportunities in various fields like agriculture, automobiles, construction, cultural industries, information technology, manufacturing, petrochemicals, property, retail, services, tourism etc. We have projects in various stages of readiness which can be presented to interested parties.
As South African prepares for the 2010 Football World Cup most of the opportunities mentioned under ASGISA also make themselves available and numerous projects are being developed that international partners can participate in. There is a vibrant second property market in South Africa which people can use as investment vehicles and holiday locations as well.
South Africa is firmly committed to fully participating in the revival and renaissance of Africa . We believe that we cannot be strong where Africa is weak. So we are working together with different African countries, especially those in Southern Africa on various development programmes, cooperating on strengthening African institutions, investing in numerous African economies ( South Africa is the largest provider of foreign direct investment on the African continent). We are the gateway into Africa in many areas and it will be important for us to cooperate with the Diaspora on African issues.
Conclusion
So in conclusion we must reconnect African globally, at various levels, people to people, business to business, organized labour to organized labour, government to government and regional bodies to regional bodies. We must develop realistic plans with concrete actions and practical timeframes and begin implementing these immediately. There is no time to lose. Other Diaspora and their home regions have done it; there is no reason from Africa and her Diaspora to fail. Our destiny is in our hands.
Africa has for too long been seen in a negative light internationally. The global media reports mainly negative news when it has to say the little that the world is told about Africa . It is coups, conflict, poverty, underdevelopment etc. We vehemently oppose this parochial attitude and seek to bring about a more balanced picture about Africa . We also want the global village to know that there are numerous opportunities on the African continent. Average economic growth has been over 5% for the past few years and is expected to grow even further. African countries have developed NEPAD as a strategy through which we will pull ourselves through our own efforts together with international assistance where required.
There are various structures, systems, agreements for cooperation between Africa and its Diaspora. But often people, companies and other stakeholders are unaware of these. It is the role of research institutions to create the environments where this information is collected and disseminated widely for the benefit of all. We must also track the state of implementation and highlight the challenges faced therein.
